4885 
U5Ma 


J-'l  i^ 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

11  IF:  UNIVERSITY 

CM  C  Al  ll-ORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


SERIES  XXV  NOS.   n-i2 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

(Edited  by  H.  B,  Adams,  1882-1901) 

J.  M.  VINCENT 

J.  H.  HOLLANDER  W.  W.  WILLOUGHBY 

Editors 


APPRENTICESHIP  IN  AMERICAN 
TRADE  UNIONS 


BY 


JAMES  M.  MOTLEY,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economics  in  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University. 


BALTIMORE 
THE  JOHNS   HOPKINS  PRESS 

PUBLISHED  MONTHLY 

November-December,  1907 


JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

Edited  by  HERBERT  B.  ADAMS,  1882-1901 

FIRST    SERIES. — Local    Institutions.— $4.00. 

I.  An  Introduction  to  American  Institutional  History.    By  E.  A.  Fbbeman.     25  cents. 

II.  The  Germanic  Origin  of  New  England  Towns,     By  H.  B.  Adams.     50  cents. 

III.  Local  Government  in  Illinois.     J3y   Albert   Shaw. — Local   Government  in  Pennsyl- 
vania.    By  E.  K.  L.  Gould.     30  cents. 

IV.  Saxon  Tithingmen  in  America.     By  H.  B.  Adams.     50  cents. 

V.  Local  Government  in  Micliigan  and  the  Northwest.     By  B.  W.  Bemis.     25  cents. 

VI.  Parish  Institutions  of  Maryland.     By  Ejuward  I^glb.     40  cents. 

VII.  Old  Maryland  Manors.     By  John  Hemsley  Johnson.     30  cents. 

VIII.  Norman  Constables  in  America.     By  H.  B.  Adams.     50  cents. 

IX-X.  Village  Communities  of  Cape  Ann  and  Salem.    By  H.  B.  Adams.     50  cents. 

XI.  The  Genesis  of  a  New  England  State.    By  A.  Johnston.    30  cents. 

XII.  Local  Government  and  Schools  in  South  Carolina.    By  B.  J.  Ramagb. 

SECOND  SERIES. — Institutions  and  Economics.— $4.00. 

I-II.  Methods  of  Historical  Study.    By  H.  B.  Adams. 

III.  The  Past  and  Present  of  Political  Economy.     By  R.  T.  Ely.     35  cents. 

IV.  Samuel  Adams,  the  Man  of  the  Town  Meeting,     By  James  K.  IIosmer.     35  cents. 
V-VI.  Taxation  in  the  United  States.     By  Uenky  Cartek  Adams.     50  cents. 

VII.  Institutional  Beginnings  in  a  Western  State.     By  Jesse  Macy.     25  cents. 
VIII-IX.  Indian  Money  in  New  England,  etc.     By  William  B.   Weeden.     50  cents. 

X.  Town  and  County  Government  in  the  Colonies.     By  E.  Ciianning. 

XI.  Sudimentary  Society  among  Boys.     By  J.  Hemsley  Johnson. 
XI'"'-.  Land  Laws  of  Mining  Districts.     By  C.  H.  Siiinn.     50  cents. 

THIRD  SERIES.— Maryland,  Virginia  and  Washington.— $4.00. 

I.  Maryland's  Influence  upon  Land  Cessions  to  the  U,  S.    By  H.  B.  Adams.     75  cents. 

II-III.  Virginia  Local  Institutions.     By  E.  Ingle. 

IV.  P.ecent  American  Socialism.     By  Richard  T.  Ely.     50  cents. 

V-VI-VII.  Maryland  Local  Institutions,     By  Lewis  W.  Wii.helm.     $1.00. 

VIII.  Influence  of  the  Proprietors  in  Founding  New  Jersey,     By  A.  Scott.     25  cents. 
IX-X.     American  Constitutions.     By  Horace  Davis. 

XI-XII,  The  City  of  Washington.     By  J.  A.  Porter. 

FOURTH  SERIES.— Municipal  Government  and  Land  Tenure.— $3.50. 

I.  Dutch  Village  Communities  on  the  Hudson  Kiver.     By  I.  Elting. 
II-III.  Town  Government  in  Rhode  Island.    By  W.  E.  Foster. — The  Narragansett  Plant- 
ers.    By  Edward  Channing. 

IV.  Pennsylvania  Boroughs,     By  William  P.  Holcomb. 

V.  Introduction  to  Constitutional  History  of  the  States.     By  J.  F.  Jameson.     50  cents. 

VI.  The  Puritan  Colony  at  Annapolis,  Maryland.     By  D.  R.  Randall. 
VII-VIII-IX.  The  Land  ftuestion  in  the  United  States.     By   S.   Sato.     .$1.00. 

X.  Town  and  City  Government  of  New  Haven.     By  C.  H.  Levermore.     50  cents. 
XI-XII.  Land  System  of  the  New  England  Colonies.     By  M.  Egi.eston.     50  cents. 

FIFTH  SERIES.— Municipal  Government,  History  and  Politics.— $3.50. 

I-II.  City  Government  of  Philadelphia.     By  E.  P.  Allinson  and  B.  Penhosb.     50  cents. 

III.  City  Government  of  Boston.     By  James  M.  Bugbee.     25  cents. 

IV.  City  Government  of  St.  Louis.     By  Marshall  S.   Snow. 

V-VI.  Local  Government  in  Canada,     By  John  George  Bourinot.     50  cents. 

VII.  Effect  of  the  Wf-r  of  1812  upon  the  American  Union,     By  N.  M.  Butler.     25  cents. 

VIII.  Notes  on  the  Literature  of  Charities,     By  Herbert  B.  Adai\is.     25  cents. 

IX.  Predictions  of  Hamilton  and  De  Tocqueville.     By  James  Bryce.     25  ceuts. 

X.  The  Study  of  History  in  England  and  Scotland.     By  P.  Freuericq.     25  cents. 

XI.  Seminary  Libraries  and  University  Extension.     By  II.  B.  Adams.     25  cents. 

XII.  European  Schools  of  History  and  Politics.     By  A.  D.  White.     25  cents. 

SIXTH  SERIES.— The  History  of  Co-operation  in  the  United  States.— ^3.50. 
SEVENTH  SERIES.— Social  Science,  Education,  Government. 

I,  Arnold  Toynbee,     By  F.  C.  Montague.     50  cents. 

II-III.  Municipal  Government  in  San  Francisco,     By  Bernard  Moses.     50  cents. 

IV.  The  City  Government  of  New  Orleans.     By  Wm.   W.  Howe.     25  cents. 

V-VI.  English  Culture  in  Virginia.     Bv  William  P.  Trent. 

VII-VIII-IX.  The  River  Towns  of  Connecticut.     By  Charles  M.   Andrews.     $1.00. 

X-XI-XII,  Federal  Government  in  Canada.     By  .Tohn  G.  Bourinot. 

EIGHTH  SERIES.— History,  Politics  and  Education. 

I-II.  The  Beginnings  of  American  Nationality.     By  A.  W.  Small.     $1.00. 

III.  Local  Government  In  Wisconsin.     By  D.  E.  Spencer. 

IV.  Spanish  Colonization  In  the  Southwest.     Bv  F.  W.  Blackmar. 

V-VI.  The  Study  of  History  in  Germany  and  France,     By  P.  Frbdbricq.     $1.00. 
VII-IX.  Progress  of  the  Colored  People  of  Maryland.     By  .T.  R.  Brackbtt.     $1.00. 
X.  The  Study  of  History  in  Belgium  and  Holland.     By  P.  Frbdericq. 
XI-XII,  Seminary  Notes  on  Historical  Literature,    By  II.  B.  Adams  and  others.     50  cents. 


APPRENTICESHIP  IN  AMERICAN  TRADE  UNIONS 


SERIES  XXV  NOS.    II-I2 

JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

(Edited  by  H.  B.  Adams,  1882-1901) 

J.  M.  VINCENT 

J.  H.  HOLLANDER  W.  W.  WILLOUGHBY 

Editors 


APPRENTICESHIP  IN  AMERICAN 
TRADE  UNIONS 


BY 


JAMES  M.  MOTLEY,  Ph.D. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economics  in  Leland  Stanford  Jr.  University. 


BALTIMORE 
THE  JOHNS   HOPKINS   PRESS 

PUBLISHED  MONTHLY 

November-December,  1907 


Copyright   1907   iiv 
THE  JOHNS   HOPKINS   PRESS 


P9f0   ft* 


PREFACE 


This  monograph  is  one  of  a  series  of  investigations  into 
various  phases  of  American  trade  unionism  undertaken  by 
the  Economic  Seminary  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
In  addition  to  the  large  collection  of  trade-union  publications 
now  in  the  Johns  Hopkins  University,  the  author  had  access 
to  materials  at  the  national  headquarters  of  many  of  the 
more  important  American  trade  unions.  The  documentary 
information  thus  secured  has  been  supplemented  and  cor- 
rected by  personal  observation  and  by  interviews  with  labor 
leaders  and  employers  in  the  chief  centers  of  industry  in 
the  United  States. 

The  author  desires  to  acknowledge  the  assistance  received 
in  every  part  of  the  work  from  Professor  Jacob  H.  Hollander 
and  Associate  Professor  George  E.  Barnett. 

J.  M.  M. 


343:^ 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


Introduction    9 

PART   I. 

Historical. 

Chapter      I.     Governmental  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship..  12 

Chapter    II.    Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  .  .| 18 

Chapter  III.    Tr(\de-Union  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship.  .  31 
Chapter  IV.    Apprenticeship   Determined   by   Trade   Agree- 
ment      42 

PART    II. 

Descriptive. 
Chapter      I.     Extent    of     Present     Union     Apprenticeship 

Regulations 53 

Chapter    II.     Apprenticeship  Regulation  and  its  Purpose..     66 

Chapter  III.     Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations 75 

Chapter  IV.     Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules....  100 


Vll 


APPRENTICESHIP  IN  AMERICAN  TRADE 
UNIONS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

From  the  beginning  of  industrial  development  in  the 
United  States  to  the  present  time  apprenticeship  regulations 
have  been  successively  determined  by  four  different  methods : 

(a)  In  the  colonial  and  early  state  period,  apprenticeship 
was  regulated  by  statute  law  or  indenture.  Every  master, 
journeyman  or  other  person  receiving  an  apprentice  was 
to  conform  to  the  requirements  of  the  law  of  indenture 
of  the  state  in  which  he  resided.  The  apprentice  boy  was 
likewise  bound  under  oath  to  fulfill  his  part  of  the  contract. 
This  contract  was  agreed  to  and  signed  in  the  presence  of 
a  magistrate.  Although  effective  during  certain  periods  of 
its  existence,  the  legal  indenture  became  offensive  to  the 
apprentice  and  unsuited  to  the  changed  conditions  of  indus- 
trial life,  and  was  finally  abandoned. 

(b)  Coexistent  with  the  law  of  indenture,  and  doubtless 
in  some  of  the  older  industries  preceding  it,  each  trade 
developed  certain  customary  rules  governing  apprentice- 
ship. These  practices  were  effective  in  many  communities, 
and  in  fact  were  observed  throughout  entire  trades.  Still, 
at  a  later  date,  when  the  means  of  communication  and 
travel  fostered  a  more  severe  competition,  employers  did 
not  hesitate  to  break  any  customary  or  unwritten  regulations 
observed  by  the  journeymen  and  to  substitute  their  own 
rules  governing  apprenticeship. 

(c)  Before  the  rapid  development  of  the  different  indus- 
tries and  the  growth  of  trade  unionism,  while  individual 
bargaining  was  still  the  method  used  by  the  employees 
in  dealing  with  their  employers,  the  journeymen  realized  the 
weakness  of  the  indenture  and  of  customary  rules  as  ade- 

9 


lo  Introduction  [492 

quale  methods  for  regulating  apprenticeshij).  Moreover, 
the  large  number  of  boys  received  by  some  employers 
tended  to  reduce  the  wages  of  the  journeymen.  To  elim- 
inate this  and  other  evils,  the  employee  undertook,  through 
his  trade  union,  to  determitic  all  regulations  governing 
apprenticeship. 

During  the  early  stage  ot  unionism,  cacii  local  union  ad- 
justed its  apprenticeship  rules  according  to  its  immediate 
environment.  This  practically  precluded  complete  unifor- 
mity ajuong  the  locals  throughout  each  trade.  When  pos- 
sible, the  union  limited  the  number  of  apprentices  received. 
Later,  the  international  imions  in  some  well-organized  in- 
dustries assumed  control  of  apprenticeship  regulations 
throughout  the  entire  trade,  and  made  them  uniform.  The 
union  was  impelled  to  take  this  step,  in  tlu-  first  place,  be- 
cause, as  competition  developed  between  employers  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  country,  the  advantage  obtained  by  an 
employer  who  secured  extra  apprentices  at  a  reduced  wage 
was  keenly  felt  by  such  of  his  competitors  as  were  unable 
to  secure  this  privilege.  In  the  second  place,  since  the 
market  for  labor  had  l)ecome  national,  the  journeymen  of  a 
trade  in  all  parts  of  the  country  were  interested  in  limiting 
the  large  number  of  apprentices  received  in  certain  shops. 

The  employers  never  conceded  the  claims  of  the  unions  to 
determine  all  apprenticeship  regulations,  especially  the  right 
to  place  a  restriction  upon  the  number  permitted,  and  op- 
posed attempts  to  enforce  such  limitation.  ,\  bitter  strug- 
gle followed.  When  the  tmion  was  strongly  organized,  its 
rcgidations  prevailed  :  when  weakly  organized,  the  employ- 
ers put  to  work  in  their  non-union  shops  as  many  boys  as 
they  desired.  Morc*over,  neither  party  felt  especially  con- 
ccrnetl  to  demand  thorough  training  for  the  apprentice. 

(d)  Finally,  as  the  growth  of  trade  unions  and  the  devel- 
opment of  employers'  as.sociations  has  continued,  in  some 
trades  i)ractically  all  disputed  questions,  including  those  re- 
lating to  apprenticeship,  have  cojue  to  be  submitted  to  a  joint 
board  for  .settlement.     With  the  more  general  recognition 


493]  Introduction  II 

and  acceptance  of  the  principles  of  conciliation,  apprentice- 
ship regulations  are  in  many  cases  mutually  determined  in 
this  manner  and  heartier  cooperation  is  secured  in  enforcing 
them. 

In  the  following  study,  the  four  methods  of  securing 
apprenticeship  regulations,  above  mentioned,  will  be  consid- 
ered ;  the  causes  leacjing  to  the  failure  of  one  and  the  sub- 
stitution of  another  and  the  conditions  of  the  apprentice 
under  each  will  be  pointed  out ;  the  extent  of  apprenticeship 
rules  in  trade  unions  of  the  present  day  will  be  noted ;  and 
the  purpose  and  scope  of  such  rules  will  be  discussed.  Since 
this  study  is  primarily  concerned  with  apprenticeship  and 
trade  unions,  only  a  brief  statement  of  the  law  of  indenture 
seems  necessary.  The  previous  training  of  foreign  jour- 
neymen engaged  in  this  country  and  the  customary  rules 
gradually  developed  to  meet  the  peculiar  native  environ- 
ment influenced  materially  the  apprenticeship  regulations  of 
the  early  trade  unions.  A  brief  study  of  these  influences 
enables  us  the  better  to  follow  and  appreciate  later  union 
apprenticeship  regulations. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that,  while  dififerent  method.-, 
for  determining  apprenticeship  regulations  were  used,  no 
precise  period  other  than  the  general  historical  sequence  fol- 
lowing the  change  of  industry  can  be  assigned  for  each. 
For  example,  the  old  indenture  laws  have  not  been  entirely 
removed  from  the  statute  books.  Again,  in  many  small  or 
unorganized  shops,  customary  apprenticeship  rules  are  ob- 
served at  the  present  time  ;  and,  even  though  conciliation  has 
proved  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  method  for  enacting  and 
enforcing  these  regulations,  as  a  matter  of  fact  they  are 
determined  in  many  cases  exclusively  by  the  local  or  inter- 
national union. 


TAKT   I. 

inS'l'ORKWl.. 

• 
riTArTF.R  T. 

GOVKRXMKNTAL    KllGULATKlN    (H-    APPRKNTICESHIP. 

The  midcrlyinp  j)uri)ose  of  early  ap|)rciiticcship  laws  in 
the  I'nilcd  States  was  twofold,  ia)  industrial  and  (b) 
philanthropic. 

(a)  The  general  custom  prevailed — inherited  from  Kuro- 
pean  industrial  conditions — for  every  boy  of  the  artisan  class 
to  learn  a  trade.  The  ordinary  mechanic  desired  to  have  his 
own  son  thus  equipped.  I'or.  without  such  traininc:.  he  was 
handicapped  in  carrying  on  his  life  work.  I'ndcr  the  law, 
it  was  possible  for  any  master  to  receive  an  apprentice  with 
the  assurance  that  the  boy  would  remain  in  his  charp:e  until 
lie  became  of  age,  and  the  boy  was  likewise  eert.iin  that  he 
would  be  taught  a  useful  trade. 

(b)  Secondly,  the  law  guaranteed  to  poi»r,  unft>rlunate  or 
neglected  children  the  (Opportunity  to  learn  a  trade,  .so  that 
they  might,  in  time,  become  useful  citizens  and  not  public 
charges.  This  intention  is  clearly  set  forth  in  the  preamble 
to  '*  An  Act  for  the  I'.etter  Regulations  of  .Apprentices," 
passed  by  the  State  of  Maryland  in  1793.  "  Whereas  it  has 
been  found  by  experience  that  p<K)r  children,  orphans  and 
illegitimate  children  for  want  of  sufficient  system  have  been 
left  destitute  of  supfxirt.  and  have  become  useless  or  de- 
praved members  of  society  ;  and  whereas  it  would  greatly 
conduce  to  the  goofi  of  the  public  in  general  and  of  such 
chihlrcn  in  particular,  that  ncces.sary  instruction  in  trades 
and  useful  arts  should  be  afforded  them  ;  therefore  be  it 
enacted,"*  etc. 

'T.-iw*   '.f   M.irvl.TncI.    1701.   rii.TpIrr    14. 


495]     Goi'crninciital  Regulation   of  Apprenticeship.         13 

The  apprenticeship  laws  varied  from  state  to  state,  but  the 
main  features  were  essentially  the  same : 

Those  permitted  to  bind  out  children  were  parents,  who 
mij^ht  indenture  their  own  children  ;  justices  of  the  peace, 
who  were  empowered  to  bind  out  orphans,  children  sufferiilg 
throu£;:h  nej^^ligence  or  pcwerty  of  parents,  children  of  beg- 
gars, illegitimate  or  destitute  children  ;  trustees  or  guardians, 
to  whose  care  orphans  or  other  poor  children  had  been  in- 
trusted ;  institutions  or  benevolent  societies,  under  whose 
jurisdiction  dependents  had  been  placed. 

Any  manufacturer,  mechanic,  mariner,  handicraftsman  or 
any  other  person  acceptable  to  the  one  having  the  child  in 
charge  and  to  the  court  officials  was  permitted  to  receive  an 
apprentice  provided  satisfactory  terms  could  be  arranged. 
The  mode  of  procedure  or  ceremony  followed  when  inden- 
turing an  apprentice  was  simple.  The  father,  trustees,  or 
other  person  having  control  of  the  boy,  together  with  the 
one  receiving  the  apprentice,  appeared  in  court  with  the  writ- 
ten indenture,  wherein  were  embodied  the  terms  previously 
agreed  upon.  Each  party  took  an  oath  to  abide  by  the  con- 
ditions of  the  indenture,  and  a  copy  of  the  instrument  was 
placed  on  file  in  the  records  of  the  magistrate,  for  which 
service  the  latter  received  a  small  fee  paid  by  the  master. 
In  case  the  child  of  a  beggar  or  other  non-supporting  parent 
was  about  to  be  bound  out,  the  latter  was  consulted  in  a 
general  way  as  to  the  person  to  whom  the  child  should  be 
bound.  ]\Ioreover,  if  any  relative  or  other  person  desired 
to  provide  for  the  child  and  furnished  an  acceptable  bond 
for  faithful  performance  of  such  duty  until  the  apprentice 
became  of  age,  the  child  could  not  be  bound  out. 

The  conditions  under  w^hich  the  apprentice  served  were  in 
the  main  uniform.  As  a  rule,  no  definite  period  of  appren- 
ticeship was  stated  in  the  contract  other  than  that  the  ap- 
prentice was  required  to  serve  until  of  age — twenty-one 
years  in  case  of  males  and  sixteen  in  case  of  females,  thus 
making  the  term  of  service  entirely  dependent  upon  the  age 
at  the  time  of  indenture.     Xo  apprentice  could  be  bound  for 


14  Af>prct\ticcshif>  in  .IntiTican  Trade  Unions.       [496 

a  period  extciulinR:  beyond  this  limit.  When  a  fatlicr  bound 
out  his  own  son,  he  was  free  to  make  any  reasonable  terms 
with  the  master  mechanic;  but  justices  of  the  peace,  binding 
out  upon  their  own  authority  orphans  or  other  children  com- 
mitted to  their  charge,  were  directed  by  the  law  to  insert  in 
the  contract  the  provision  that  when  possible  the  master  of 
an  apprentice  should,  in  addition  to  the  instruction  given 
in  some  useful  art  or  trade,  provide  opportunities  wherebv 
the  apprentice  could  obtain  a  reasonable  education  in  the 
primary  branches — reading,  writing  and  arithmetic.  Except 
in  rare  or  special  cases,  no  attempt  was  made  to  specify  the 
particular  kind  of  work  in  which  the  apprentice  should  en- 
gage during  each  year  of  his  term,  this  being  left  to  the 
discretion  of  the  employer. 

Both  the  apprentice  and  the  employer  were  bound  by  law 
to  observe  certain  stipulated  conditions  ;  anfl,  in  case  the  con- 
tract was  broken,  the  guilty  party  might  be  summoned  be- 
fore the  court  ami  jnuiishcd.  For  offences  committed  dur- 
ing the  term  of  service  the  apprentice  was  subject  to  the 
same  penalty  imposcfl  upon  any  other  citizen  for  a  similar 
offense,  and,  in  case  the  master  paid  the  fine  and  costs  of  the 
trial,  the  court,  to  comjiensate  his  employer,  could  adjudge 
the  extra  time  the  l)oy  should  serve  after  the  completion  of 
his  regular  term.  In  some  states  the  master  was  prohibited, 
under  penalty  of  discharging  his  apjirentices,  from  taking 
them  into  another  state  or  beyond  the  boundary  of  his  own 
state. 

In  case  the  master  died  during  the  term  of  apprentice- 
ship, the  widow  was  given  power  to  transfer  all  rights  and 
interests  in  the  apprentice  to  another  master  of  the  same 
trade,  for  a  sinn  agreed  upon  h\  them.  This  amount  was 
considered  as  lielonging  directly  to  the  widow  and  not  as  a 
part  of  the  estate  of  her  deceased  husband.  Moreover, 
after  the  death  of  the  master,  tmtii  some  disposition  was 
made  of  the  apprentice,  he  was  to  remain  at  home  and 
continue  his  usual  work  under  direction  of  the  widow. 

As  a  rule,  the  employer  was  not  forced  to  take  an  appren- 


497]     Governmental  Regulation   of  Apprenticeship.  15 

ticc,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  if  he  did  desire  to  use  appren- 
tices, was  not  limited  as  to  the  number  he  might  put  to  work. 
In  some  states,  however,  every  master  pilot  was  compelled 
to  take  at  least  one  apprentice  and  to  give  him  the  neces- 
sary instruction.  The  complete  control  given  to  the  em- 
ployer over  apprentices  caused  the  latter  in  some  cases  to 
be  grouped  with  servants  and  slaves,  and  the  same  laws 
were  sometimes  made  applicable  to  both. 

The  contents  of  the  indenture  were  largely  matters  of 
contract  between  the  master  mechanic  and  the  apprentice 
or  parent,  and  the  terms  thereof  varied  according  to  the 
conditions  and  desires  of  the  parties  concerned.  Some  em- 
ployers were  exacting  and  demanded  pledges  of  the  boy. 
The  state,  also  having  in  mind  the  general  welfare  of  the 
apprentices — for  one  object  of  the  law  was  to  provide  poor, 
neglected  and  orphan  children  with  homes  and  opportuni- 
ties to  learn  trades — not  only  protected  him  by  restrictions 
placed  on  the  employer,  but  also  exacted  promises  of  good 
behavior  from  the  boy  himself.  Thus,  an  indenture  entered 
into  by  a  master  boot  and  shoe  maker  and  a  boy  who  en- 
gaged himself  to  learn  that  trade,  provided  that  "  During 
all  which  term,  the  said  Apprentice,  his  said  Master  well 
and  faithfully  shall  serve,  his  secrets  keep,  and  his  lawful 
commands  everywhere  at  all  times  readily  obey.  He  shall 
do  no  damage  to  his  said  ?^Iaster  nor  wilfully  sufifer  any  to 
be  done  by  others,  and  if  any  to  his  knowledge  be  intended, 
he  shall  give  his  Master  seasonable  notice  thereof.  He  shall 
not  waste  the  goods  of  his  said  Master  nor  lend  them 
unlawfully  to  any.  At  card,  dice,  or  any  other  unlawful 
game,  he  shall  not  play.  Fornication  he  shall  not  commit, 
nor  matrimony  contract,  during  the  said  term.  Taverns, 
alehouses  or  places  of  gaming  he  shall  not  haunt  or  fre- 
quent. From  the  service  of  his  said  Master  he  shall  not 
absent  himself,  but  in  all  things  and  at  all  times,  he  shall 
carry  and  behave  himself  as  a  good  and  faithful  Appren- 
tice ought,  during  the  whole  term  aforesaid.  And  the 
said  Master  on  his  part  doth  hereby  promise,  covenant  and 


1 6  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [498 

aprcc  to  teach  and  instruct  tlic  said  Ai)prcnlicc,  or  cause 
him  to  be  taught  and  instructed  in  the  art,  trade  or  caUing 
of  a  Ho<it  and  Sh(X'  Maker  by  the  best  way  or  means  he  can, 
and  the  said  Master  agrees  to  give  the  said  Apprentice 
three  months  scliooHng  to  wit.  Reading.  Writing  and 
Cyphering  as  far  as  the  Rule  of  Three  Inchisive  and  shall 
well  and  faitii fully  find  and  jjrovide  for  the  said  Apprentice, 
good  and  sufficient  meat,  drink,  clothing,  lodging,  and  other 
necessities  fit  and  convenient  for  such  an  Apprentice,  dur- 
ing the  term  aforesaid  and  at  the  expiration  of  the  said 
term  to  have  the  Customary  freedom  due." 

Under  such  conditions,  the  early  manufacturer,  often  a 
hard  worker,  having  in  view  the  future  welfare  of  his 
business,  and  in  many  cases,  desiring  to  ecpiip  his  own  son. 
or  a  boy  in  whom  he  was  interested,  for  his  life  work, 
gathered  one  or  more  lads  al>out  liim  and  gave  them,  often 
in  person,  the  instruction  needed  to  make  of  them  com- 
petent workmen.  Except  in  so  far  as  the  indenture  pre- 
scribed the  manner  in  which  apprentices  were  to  be  received 
and  compelled  each  party  to  abide  by  the  terms  of  the  con- 
tract, the  employer  and  the  parent  or  guardian  of  the 
apprentice  were  practically  free  to  arrange  all  details  of  the 
agreement. 

The  failure  and  final  abandonment  of  the  indenture  sys- 
tem is  to  f)c  attributed  to  several  causes.  It  was  peculiarly 
suited  to  domestic  or  small-scale  manufacture  in  which 
personal  contact  Ix'tween  the  master  and  apprentice  was 
<  •;  I'liasizcd.  and  it  became  correspondingly  an  ineffective 
;  t(in.  with  the  emergence  and  final  establi.shment  of  the 
modem  factory  or  large-scale  production.  In  fact,  appren- 
ticeship regulations,  like  other  trade  rules,  depend  largely 
ui)on  the  methods  under  which  the  indu.stry  is  operated, 
and  must  be  adjusted  from  time  to  time  according  to  the 
new  conditions  arising. 

Again,  the  artisan  class  insistc*!  that  their  children  be 
taught  a  trade,  and  the  master  was  likcwi.se  anxious  for 
a  legal  contract  in  order  that  he  might  be  assured  of  con- 


499]     Governmental  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship.         \y 

stant  service  until  the  end  of  the  stated  term.  The  in- 
denture afforded  the  bej:^inner  such  an  opportunity  to  learn 
the  trade,  but  at  a  distinct  sacrifice  of  personal  liberty. 
This  was  specially  true  in  the  case  of  poor,  neglected  and 
orphan  children,  who  were  often  bound  to  masters  whom 
they  did  not  select  and  upon  terms  not  of  their  own  choos- 
ing. Theoretically,  the  master  and  the  boy  assumed  equal 
positions  before  the  law — each  being  bound  to  perform 
certain  clearly  defined  duties — and  the  relations  between 
them  were  often  mutually  pleasant  and  profitable.  Never- 
theless, the  master  naturally  exercised  the  larger  influence, 
and  the  apprentice  was  at  a  corresponding  disadvantage. 
In  practically  every  industry,  the  boy  was  compelled  to 
perform  odd  jobs  entirely  distinct  from  trade  activities. 
Accordingly,  his  term  of  apprenticeship  was  unduly  ex- 
tended. Thus,  entirely  apart  from  the  industrial  changes 
in  the  methods  of  production  which  rendered  the  indenture 
system  less  desirable,  it  tended  of  itself  to  become  more 
and  more  objectionable  to  the  apprentice  boys.  They  be- 
came restless  under  the  heavy  restraint  imposed  upon  them, 
often  ran  away  from  their  masters,  and  sought  employment 
elsewhere  as  journeymen.  They  refused  to  be  grouped 
before  the  law  with  servants  and  slaves ;  and  their  con- 
tinued opposition  to  the  system  contributed  in  no  small 
degree  to  its  final  abandonment. 

Finally,  it  is  perhaps  not  entirely  fanciful  to  suggest 
that  the  gradual  growth  of  feeling  against  the  law  by  which 
the  slave  was  bound  to  his  master  operated  to  bring  into 
disfavor  the  statute  vmder  w^hicli  the  apprentice  was  held 
by  his  employer.  Journeymen  who  have  been  long  at  their 
trade,  especially  those  whose  term  antedates  the  Civil  War, 
assert  that  such  was  undoubtedly  the  case,  even  though  the 
influence  was  not  always  visible  nor  tansfible. 


CHAPTER    TI. 

CfSTOMARV   AprRENTICESHIP   RULES. 

Indenture  laws  gradually  became  ineffective  in  the 
various  trades.  Vet.  even  after  employers  and  journeymen 
experienced  difficulty  in  enforcing  them,  in  the  absence  of 
more  efticieiit  methods  such  laws  were  retained  on  the 
statute  IxKDks. 

I'-ven.  however,  during  the  existence  of  the  indenture 
itself,  and  previous  to  the  orp^anization  of  trade  unions, 
artisans  engaged  at  the  various  trades  developed  certain 
customs  in  connection  with  apprenticeship  which,  while 
not  rigidly  observed  at  all  times,  nevertheless  were  more 
or  less  binding,  and  were  the  rules  most  generally  practiced. 
The.sc  early  customs  adopted  by  the  journeymen  themselves 
in  dealing  with  the  apprentice  were  in  a  great  measure  in- 
fluenced (a)  by  foreign  trade  customs  introduced  by  artisans 
coming  from  other  countries  and  (b)  by  the  conditions 
existing  in  the  new  country. 

(a)  The  words  "  berkshire  "  and  "  two-thirder."  desig- 
nating l)eginners  in  the  iron  molding  and  printing  industries 
respectively,  were  brought  from  Kfigland.  where  the  .same 
terms  were  widely  used,  and  suggest  the  direct  infliience 
of  Rngli.sh  customs  ui)on  apprenticeship  regulations  in  this 
country.  This  is  readily  imderstood  when  the  large  number 
of  foreigners  engaged  in  .\merican  industry  is  con^iidered. 
It  frequently  happened  that  em|)loyi>rs.  even  though  per- 
mitted to  receive  a  large  ntunber  of  apprentices,  found  the 
supply  of  arti.sans  inadequate  to  meet  the  legitimate  de- 
mands of  the  traflc.  and  sent  representatives  abroad  to 
urge  skilled  workmen  to  take  up  residence  in  this  country. 
In  some  instances,  state  legislatures,  acting  upon  the  urgent 
appeal  of  prominent  employers,  who  claimed  that  more 
trained  mechanics  were  needed,  .sent  agents  abroad  to  urge 
I8 


50i]  Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  19 

immigration  to  that  state.  In  1863  the  Legislature  of  Mis- 
souri, urged  by  prominent  employers  of  the  commonwealth, 
sent  an  agent  to  Europe  for  the  express  purpose  of  in- 
ducing skilled  mechanics  to  seek  employment  in  that  state. 
Mr.  Giles  Filley,  a  prominent  stove  manufacturer  of  St. 
Louis,  claimed  that  the  supply  of  well-trained  iron  molders 
was  entirely  inadequate  to  meet  his  legitimate  business  de- 
mands, and  urged  the  agent  to  send  him  a  large  number  of 
Prussian  iron  molders.  This  request  was  speedily  complied 
with,  and  twenty-five  molders,  having  accepted  the  offer 
of  the  American  agent  by  contract,  dated  Berlin,  March 
8,  1864,  started  for  St.  Louis.  Upon  their  arrival,  they 
were  approached  by  members  of  the  local  union  of  iron 
molders,  who  explained  that  the  supposed  deficiency  in  the 
supply  of  workmen  was  not  caused  by  any  unfair  and 
rigid  apprenticeship  rules  of  the  union  nor  by  any  un- 
willingness upon  the  part  of  the  journeymen  to  work,  but, 
as  they  stated,  by  the  very  low  wages  offered.  Upon  this 
information,  the  Prussian  molders  disregarded  their  con- 
tract signed  in  Berlin,  became  members  of  the  union,  and 
through  the  influence  of  that  body  succeeded  in  obtaining 
employment  in  other  cities. 

The  methods  used  by  employers  in  the  printing  industry 
to  secure  foreign  workmen  are  made  clear  in  a  statement 
prefacing  the  printed  constitution  of  the  New  York  Typo- 
graphical Association,  issued  in  1833.  After  reciting  the 
depressed  condition  of  the  trade,  it  adds  that  "  among 
the  means  made  use  of  to  depress  the  business  by  those  who 
withhold  from  the  workmen  their  just  demands,  has  been 
advertising  in  several  of  the  newspapers  in  Scotland,  and 
elsewhere  in  Great  Britain,  that  a  great  opening  for  printers 
existed  in  New  York,  thereby  inducing  many  to  leave  the 
comforts  of  home  in  the  old  country  for  a  precarious  sub- 
sistence on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic.  ]\Iany  to  their  regret 
can  testify  to  the  truth  of  this  assertion:  and  the  feelings 
of  the  man,  by  whose  unprincipled  conduct  this  breaking 
up  of  kindred  and  subsequent  disappointment  in  obtaining 


20  Af*f*rcnliccslul'  in  .hiwriciin  Trade  Unions.       [502 

the  means  of  support  have  liappencd,  arc  not  to  be  envied. 
Perhaps  the  day  may  come,  when  remorse,  hke  a  subtle 
poison,  may  h>rk  alx)ut  his  heart,  and  cause  him  to  do  an 
act  of  justice  to  those  who  have  been  swindled  by  his 
deception.  When  the  .Association  was  informed  of  the 
means  taken  by  unprincipled  men  to  injure  the  business,  a 
circular  was  immediately  addressed  to  the  Printers  of  the 
United  Kinj^dom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  dis- 
patched by  one  of  its  members.  The  .\ssociation  has  since 
learned,  by  letters  from  Europe,  that  the  appeal  has  had 
an  extensive  circulation,  and  has  tended  in  a  p^reat  measure 
to  counteract  the  evil  cf>iitemj)late(l  bv  the  original  adver- 
tisements." 

In  response  to  these  and  other  inducements,  foreipi  me- 
chanics came  in  larp^e  numbers  to  the  United  States.  They 
prided  themselves  upon  their  skill,  which,  as  a  rule,  was 
superior  to  that  of  native  .Americans  who  had  received  little 
training,  and  that  of  inferior  quality.  In  order  to  make 
competent  workmen  of  his  own  sons  or  of  the  apprentice 
l)oys  placed  under  his  charge,  it  was  natural  for  the  newly 
arrived  journeyman  to  adopt  the  same  methods  under  which 
he  had  learned  his  trade  at  home.  European  example  thus 
influencerl.  if  it  did  not  entirely  determine.  .American  ap- 
prenticeship customs. 

(b)  The  dominance  of  simple  rather  than  complex  in- 
dustry during  the  early  period  of  our  national  hi.story.  and 
even  after  the  formation  of  the  first  labor  unions,  directly 
influenced  trade  conditions  generally,  includinq^  rules  gov- 
erning apprenticeship.  The  iiulustrial  unit  was  compara- 
tively small,  ordinarily  the  small  shop,  sometimes  even 
the  family  group. 

The  period  was  al.so  marked  by  the  absence  of  a  widely 
extcn<lefl  market,  rapid  commtinicatioji  and  easy  means  of 
transjKirtation.  These  conditions  made  it  necessary  for  each 
household  or  community  to  produce  for  itself,  without  any 
special  knowlcflge  of  the  means  and  resources  of  other  dis- 
tricts, and  without  evti  tlu-  stinndu>^  "f  .  ..injvtitiMti 


503]  Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  21 

The  cigar  making  industry,  for  example,  was  largely  car- 
ried on  in  small  local  establishments.  The  following  pass- 
age from  the  first  annual  report  of  the  Ohio  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  summarizes  the  early  condition  of  the  cigar  indus- 
try. "  Previous  to  i86i,  no  class  of  employes  was  more 
independent  of  employers  than  cigar  makers.  Few  large 
manufacturing  establishments  existed,  and  as  a  rule,  the 
manufacturer  was  the  retailer.  Whenever  the  journeyman 
became  dissatisfied  with  his  condition,  he  withdrew  from  the 
employer  and  set  up  a  shop  of  his  own."-  Every  large  city 
was  well  supplied  with  many  such  shops,  where  the  journey- 
man, aided  by  members  of  his  family  or  by  apprentice  boys, 
made  all  his  goods  by  hand.  Even  the  small  cities  had  their 
own  cigar  manufacturers,  who  made  and  retailed  to  the  gen- 
eral public  the  larger  portion  of  the  local  supply. 

Similar  early  conditions  affecting  the  machinists'  and 
blacksmiths'  trade  are  clearly  set  forth  by  one  long  identi- 
fied with  the  trade  in  organizing  unions  and  in  managing 
their  affairs.  "  Young  men  whose  majority  dates  since 
1 861  can  form  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  what  the  craft  was 
twenty  or  twenty-five  years  ago.  It  is  still  wathin  the  recol- 
lection of  gray-headed  machinists  and  blacksmiths,  the  days 
when  a  machinist  was  a  compound  of  handiwork,  a  kind  of 
cross  between  a  millwright  and  w'hitesmith,  a  fitter,  fur- 
nisher, locksmith,  etc.  ...  In  the  early  days  of  mechanism 
in  the  country  but  few  shops  employed  many  men.  Gener- 
ally the  employer  was  head  man,  he  knew  his  men  person- 
ally, he  instructed  his  apprentices  and  kept  a  general  super- 
vision of  his  business.  By  that  means  every  workman  knew 
his  employer,  and  if  aught  went  astray  there  was  no  circum- 
locution office  to  go  through  to  have  an  understanding  about 
it.  But  as  the  business  came  to  be  more  fully  developed,  it 
was  found  that  more  capital  must  be  employed  and  the 
authority  and  supervision  of  the  owner  or  owners  must  be 
delegated  to  superintendent  or  foreman."^ 

Moreover,  the  precise  relations  existing  between  the  ap- 

■  Cigar  Makers'  Journal,  May,  1878,  p.  12. 

*  Machinists  and  Blacksmiths'  Journal,  February,   1872,  p.  521. 


22  Apprenticeship  in  Antericdn  Trade  Utiioits.       [504 

prentice  and  his  master  were  atTectcd  hy  the  nature  of  the 
trade  itself  and  the  manner  in  which  it  was  conducted.  The 
builthnjj  trades,  for  example,  were  easily  "  jiicked  up ; "  or 
at  least  tlie  opportunities  for  acquiring  them  were  abundant. 
In  these  trades  the  beginner  was  apprenticed  to  his  employer. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  conditions  existing  in  such  an  in- 
dustry as  stove  molding  were  quite  different.*  Considerable 
capital  was  required  to  establish  the  industry,  which  was  con- 
ducted in  fewer  localities  and  afforded  opportunities  for  a 
much  smaller  number  of  apprentices.  The  boy  was  often 
apprenticed  to  neither  the  proprietor  of  the  furnace  nor  the 
real  stove  manufacturers,  that  is.  the  employer  who  fur- 
nished the  patterns  and  had  his  stove  molded,  but  to  the 
journeyman,  who  paid  him  by  the  piece  for  what  he  made. 
Every  journeyman  engaged  at  least  one  "  berkshire,"  as  the 
apprentice  Ixiy  was  called,  and  oftentimes  four  or  five. 
"  These  berkshires  were  a  peculiar  institution.  They  were 
boys  employed  by  molders  to  assist  them  at  their  work, 
nominally  as  helpers,  but  in  reality  they  were  apprentices, 
and  every  molder  had  to  use  at  least  one  of  them.""  I'inally, 
when  the  casting  of  the  stove  plate  came  under  the  control 
of  the  employer  who  furnishe<l  the  designs  and  molded  the 
stoves,  boys  were  generally  apprenticed  to  the  employer, 
though  the  journeymen  continued  the  practice  of  taking 
apprentices  imtil  the  custom  was"  forbidden  by  the  union. 

Many  trades  early  became  overcnnvded  because  of  the 
large  number  of  apprentices  who  were  allowed  to  learn  the 
trade.  The  right  of  the  employt-r  to  engage  as  many  ap- 
prentices as  he  desired  was  a  custom  of  long  standing,  and 
was  regarded  as  an  undoubted  right,  not  to  be  surrendered 
without  a  struggle.  Indeed,  trotible  began  with  the  first 
attempt  of  the  lf>cals  to  restrict  the  number  going  to  the 
trade,  so  that  the  unions  found  it  necessary  to  act  slowly  and 
tn  make  the  change  gradual! < 

*Thc  firit  foundry  cIc<iiKii<*''  rxi  •:  i\<iy  lor  the  ni.Tiitif.ictiirr  of 
stoves  and  hollow  ware  in  this  roniitry  w.ts  erected  in  1829.  Pre- 
vious to  this  d.ite  .nil  stoves  were  cist  .it  block  furn.ices.  See 
Iron  Molders'  Journal,  J.inuary.  1004.  p.  7. 

'Iron    Moldrr'.'  Jf)nrii.il.    Aiitnist,   1896,  p.    I. 


505]  Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  23 

In  an  industry  such  as  that  of  cigar  making,  where  the 
producers  were  small,  each  manufacturer  engaged  appren- 
tices according  to  the  needs  of  his  own  individual  shop,  re- 
gardless of  the  general  welfare  of  the  trade.  In  conse- 
quence, the  trade  was  always  becoming  overcrowded,  and, 
after  the  formation  of  unions,®  one  of  the  most  difficult 
problems  was  how  to  control  the  supply  of  apprentices. 
After  the  movement  towards  concentration  of  the  industry 
had  begun,^  the  larger  factories  were  fairly  well  organized 
by  the  union,  and  a  regular  course  of  training  could  be 
required  of  all  beginners. 

In  certain  cities,  however,  the  trade  came  to  be  carried  on 
in  a  large  measure  by  tenement-house  workers,  with  the 
familiar  attendant  evils.  This  system  of  production  has 
continued  even  to  the  present  time,  though  state  laws  have 
been  enacted  against  sweat-shop  work,  and,  in  many  in- 
stances, the  evil  has  been  eradicated.  But  in  the  tenement 
houses,  which  were  generally  owned  by  the  manufacturer 
and  filled  entirely  with  tenants  who  promised  to  engage  in 
cigar  making,  no  accurate  estimate  of  the  number  learning 
the  trade  could  be  secured,  for  the  material  was  taken  to  and 
from  the  house  by  the  employer,  and  the  women  and  children 
aided  in  the  making.  It  w'as  from  this  source  that  the  trade 
was  recruited,  and  it  was  estimated  that,  at  one  time,  about 
four  fifths  of  the  cigars  manufactured  in  New  York  City 
were  made  in  these  tenement  houses  by  workers  who  were 
almost  entirely  non-union. 

Those  trades  were  especially  overcrowded  in  which  it  was 

°  The  first  Cigar  Makers'  Union  was  organized  at  Baltimore,  May 
5,  1851.  On  May  10-14  of  the  same  year  a  meeting  of  representa- 
tives from  cities  in  the  State  of  New  York  met  at  Syracuse  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  a  uniform  bill  of  prices  throughout  the 
state  and  regulating  the  apprenticeship  system;  see  Journal  and 
Program  of  Cigar  Makers'  International  Union,  twentieth  session, 
held  at  Milwaukee,  1893. 

'  In  1861  the  United  States  Government  placed  a  heavy  tax  on 
cigars,  thus  to  a  certain  extent  driving  the  business  into  the  hands  of 
large  manufacturers  and  compelling  the  cigar  maker  to  become  an 
employee  working  for  wages.  First  Annual  Report  of  the  Ohio 
Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics,  Columbus,  1878;  see  Cigar  Makers' 
Journal,   May,   1878,  p.    12. 


24  .tf^frcnticcshif  in  .Inu'ricitii    J  radi;  Unions.       [506 

possible  to  do  piecework,  and  hence  in  which  both  employers 
and  iinplox in^  journcvnicn  found  it  profitable  to  en.c:ag;c  the 
services  of  many  apprentices.  In  the  iron  molding  indus- 
trv  ■'  the  *  I'erkshire  '  system,  as  it  was  called,  was  a  standing 
ji^rievance,  as  it  operated  to  create  an  overcrowded  market 
of  stove  molders  with  its  logical  and  pernicious  results.'"* 
Whether  the  journeyman  was  paid  by  the  piece  or  so  much 
for  each  ci'impleted  stove,  for  both  methods  were  practiccfl  at 
different  times  and  at  dilTereiit  places,  the  greater  the  number 
of  apprentices  directed  l)y  him.  the  greater  the  output,  and 
consequently  the  larger  his  wage.  Later  on.  when  the  num- 
ber of  "  berkshires  "  allowed  each  journeyman  was  limited 
by  union  regidation  because  of  the  rapidity  with  which  the 
trade  was  l)cing  recruited,  many  of  the  older  members  com- 
plained bitterly,  and  evaded  the  intent  of  the  regulation  by 
adopting  a  l)oy,  for  the  union  recognized  the  right  of  the 
j(jurneyman  to  teach  the  trade  to  his  own  or  adopted 
son. 

Somewhat  similar  economic  conditions  brought  about 
an  ovcrsupply  of  apprentices  in  the  printing  trade.  During 
the  early  years  of  the  printing  industry  the  editor  or 
proprietor  of  a  newspaper  or  job  printing  office  was  also 
a  practical  printer.  It  was  the  cherished  ambition  of  the 
journeyman  printer  to  master  the  trade  as  soon  as  possible, 
that  he  might  l)ccome  the  proprietor  of  his  own  establish- 
ment, from  which  he  could  edit  and  issue  his  own  paper. 
This  important  position  enabled  the  occupant  to  wield  con- 
siderable influence  and  power  in  the  couimunity,  but  re- 
<Hiircd  a  long  period  of  training  ujion  the  part  of  the  one 
filling  it.  It  al.so  gave  the  journeyman  master  or  proprietor 
an  excellent  op{xirtunity  to  use  with  profit  a  number  of 
apprentices.  Tlie  ntunber  of  apprentices  employed  in  certain 
shops  often  exceeded  the  t«)tal  numlKr  of  journeymen  en- 
gaged therein.  In  fact,  instances  are  recorded  where  the 
proj)rictor  was  compelled  to  close  his  shop  during  a  strike 
of  apprentices  because  the  number  of  journeymen  remaining 
was  insufficient  to  continue  the  business. 


'Iron  Molders'  Journal.  AiigtiM,  1896.  p.  i 


507]  Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  25 

At  no  time  during  the  early  period  was  the  trade  free  from 
"  two-thirdcrs,"  that  is,  those  who  had  not  served  a  full 
apprentice  term,  or  runaway  apprentices.  Moreover,  the 
typographical  unions  in  combating  the  "  two-thirder  "  sys- 
tem were,  like  the  iron  molders'  unions  in  opposing  the 
"  berkshire  "  system,  compelled  to  oppose  not  only  the  em- 
ployers, but  also  many  of  their  own  members. 

The  evils  arising  from  the  employment  of  "  two-thirdcrs  " 
or  "  half-way  journeymen  "  are  suggested  by  a  circular  let- 
ter sent  to  the  trade  in  1809  by  the  New  York  Typographical 
Society.  Among  other  grievances  cited,  the  letter  sets  forth 
that  "  the  practice  of  employing  what  are  termed  '  half-way 
journeymen  '  in  preference  to  those  who  have  served  their 
time,  while  it  holds  out  encouragement  to  boys  to  elope  from 
their  masters,  as  soon  as  they  acquire  a  sufficient  knowledge 
of  the  art  to  be  enabled  to  earn  their  bread,  is  a  great  griev- 
ance to  journeymen,  and  almost  certain  ruin  to  the  boys 
themselves.  Becoming  masters  of  their  own  conduct  at  a 
period  of  life  when  they  are  incapable  of  governing  their 
passions  and  propensities,  they  plunge  headlong  into  every 
species  of  dissipation,  and  are  often  debilitated  by  debauch- 
ery and  disease  before  they  arrive  at  the  state  of  manhood. 
And  it  also  tends  to  an  unnecessary  multiplication  of  ap- 
prentices, inasmuch  as  the  place  of  every  boy  who  elopes 
from  his  master  is  usually  supplied  by  another ;  while  at  the 
same  time  the  runaway  supplies,  after  a  manner,  the  place 
of  a  regular  journeyman,  and  one  who  probably  has  a  family 
dependent  upon  his  labor  for  support.  We  would  also  beg 
leave  to  call  your  attention  to  a  practice  as  illiberal  and  un- 
just as  the  former  and  attended,  perhaps,  with  evils  of  a 
more  aggravating  motive ;  we  mean  that  of  taking  grown 
men  (foreigners)  as  apprentices  to  some  twelve  or  fifteen 
months,  when  they  are  to  be  turned  into  the  situations  of  men 
who  are  masters  of  their  business,  which  men  are  to  be 
turned  out  of  their  places  by  miserable  botches  because  they 
will  work  for  what  they  can  get.  By  these  means  numbers 
of  excellent  workmen,  who  ought  to  be  ornaments  to  the 


26  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [508 

profession,  arc  driven  by  necessity  to  some  otiier  means  of 
support.  "• 

Similarly,  amonp  the  machinists  and  blacksmiths,  the  idea 
of  limiting  the  number  of  apprentices  entering  the  trade  did 
not  appear  until  late.  The  early  employers  of  journeymen 
were  at  liberty  to  enpage  as  many  boys  as  the  demands  of 
the  business  would  warrant,  or,  in  case  of  the  journeyman, 
as  many  as  he  was  personally  able  to  direct.  "  The  taking 
on  of  as  many  apprentices  as  could  be  worked  was  consid- 
ered the  indubitable  right  of  every  employer,  the  peremptory 
dismissal  of  workmen  was  another ;  hence,  in  dull  times, 
men  with  families  to  support  would  find  themselves  out  of 
work,  while  the  shops,  whose  doors  were  closed  on  them, 
were  filled  with  apprentice  boys.  This  inordinate  rush  of 
apprentices  was  remonstrated  against  in  vain.  The  writer 
of  this  was  one  of  some  twenty  young  men  kept  at  work 
after  the  great  financial  crisis  of  1857,  while  there  were  sixty 
apprentices  empk)yed."'" 

The  wages  of  the  apprentice,  especially  at  the  beginning 
of  his  term,  consisted  in  many  cases  of  mere  board  and  lodg- 
ing, ordinarily  obtained  at  the  home  of  the  employer.  How- 
ever, when  the  lx)y  was  bound  out  to  the  journeyman,  who 
had  no  desire  to  increase  the  number  of  workmen  in  his 
trade,  but  received  apprentices  mainly  in  order  to  increase 
his  own  wages,  especially  when  engaged  at  piecework,  the 
boy  frequently  paid  a  stated  amount  to  the  journeyman,  who 
taught  him  the  "  art  and  mysteries  "  of  the  craft.  \'arious 
attempts  were  made  by  different  unions  to  demand  extra  pay 
for  journeymen  who  spent  a  portion  of  their  time  in  teach- 
ing an  apprentice.  Thus,  in  the  scale  of  prices  drawn  up 
by  the  New  York  Typographical  Society  in  181 5.  an  article 
was  inserted  which  provided  that  "a  pressman  shall  receive 
for  teaching  an  apprentice  presswork.  for  the  first  three 
months,  five  cents  per  token,  anrl  for  the  three  months  fol- 
lowing three  cents  per  token." 

•p.riv  f  )r„.,..,.i„..,c  of  Printcrr  hy  Kthelhcrt  Stewart,  in  Bulletin 
of  1!  ,  No,  (^\,  Novcnihcr,  1905. 

**>■  y  of  Oijr  Or(f.ini7.ition,"   in   Machinists  and 

BlacksTniths'  Journal,  Fcbniary,   1872.  p.   5J0. 


509]  Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  27 

In  common  with  the  journeyman,  the  apprentice  worked 
long  hours  each  day.  "  'J1ie  hours  of  labor  were  long,  it 
being  not  uncommon  for  molders  to  start  to  work  at  four 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  and  the  spectacle  of  a  molder  trudg- 
ing through  the  streets  at  that  hour  on  his  way  to  work, 
with  his  '  berkshire  '  at  his  side  bearing  a  lantern,  was  not 
an  unusual  one  to  the  night  watch  of  those  days."" 

The  feeling  between  the  apprentice  and  his  master  was,  in 
some  cases,  more  like  that  existing  between  father  and  son 
than  between  employer  and  employee.  If  the  apprentice 
was  not  really  adopted  by  the  master,  he  often  enjoyed  the 
pleasure  and  advantage  of  the  latter's  home,  to  w^hich  he 
generally  had  free  access,  and  in  which  he  did  many  things 
entirely  separate  and  distinct  from  the  duties  connected  with 
learning  the  trade.  Likewise,  at  the  shop,  he  ran  errands, 
cleaned  the  premises,  arranged  the  tools,  and,  in  fact,  became 
a  general  factotum  about  the  place.  While  it  was  conceded 
that  the  boy  was  indispensable  to  the  employer,  still  the  idea 
prevailed  that,  when  the  master  agreed  to  teach  his  trade  to 
the  beginner,  he  did  so  at  a  personal  sacrifice,  at  least  dur- 
ing the  first  few  years  of  the  term,  and,  to  compensate  in  a 
manner  for  this  loss,  the  apprentice  agreed  to  perform  these 
various  services  apart  from  his  regular  trade.  Doubtless 
many  employers  did  their  utmost  to  make  the  boy  a  paying 
investment  from  the  very  beginning,  and,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  numerous  runaways  recorded,  especially  from  the 
emphasis  given  to  this  portion  of  the  apprentice  question  in 
the  early  laws  on  the  subject,  employers  were  sometimes  hard 
taskmasters. 

The  close  personal  relation,  w^hich  often  existed  between 
the  old  master  and  his  apprentice  during  the  early  times,  was 
clearly  described  to  the  present  writer  by  an  old  printer,  who 
spoke  freely  of  the  conditions  under  which  he  served  his 
apprenticeship  term,  more  than  forty  years  ago,  as  well  as 
of  the  interest  taken  in  him  and  the  opportunities  afforded 
him  to  obtain  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  trade.  He  and 
his  employer  labored  together  in  a  small  printing  office  from 

"  Iron  IMolders'  Journal,  August,  1896,  p.  i. 


28  Af*l>rcnticcsUip  in  .Intiricivi  Trade  i'nious.       [510 

which  the  wcikly  newspaper  was  issued  to  the  people  in  the 
imiuecHate  coinimniity.  During  press  days  he  was  employed 
from  early  morninp  to  late  at  nipht.  But  then  an  interval 
of  several  days  f<»ll<iwed,  during  which  time  wi^rk  was  prac- 
tically suspended,  and  the  apprentice  enjoyed  leisure.  The 
house  of  the  employer  was  the  home  of  the  apprentice, 
thouph  the  latter  fre(|uently  visited  his  own  parents  on  Sat- 
urday nij;ht.  returning  on  the  following  Monday  morning. 
At  the  hcginning  of  each  day  he  performed  his  regular  as- 
signed tasks  aljout  the  house,  after  which  he  set  off  with  his 
master,  ready  for  the  day's  work  at  the  office.  The  condi- 
tions under  which  he  lal)ored  as  an  apprentice  were  far  more 
pleasant  than  those  enjoyed  in  after  years,  when  he  had 
completed  his  term  and  went  out  as  a  journeyman  upon  his 
own  responsibility. 

The  length  of  the  apprentice  term,  while  to  some  extent 
ti.xed  for  each  trade  by  general  custom,  really  depended 
upon  the  will  of  the  employer  and  the  ability  of  the  begin- 
ner. A  competent  journeyman  was  an  all-round  workman, 
and,  when  possible,  the  apprentice  was  retained  at  the  trad* 
imtil  he  had  mastered  all  parts  of  it  and  was  able  to  turn 
otit  a  complete,  finished  product.  However,  no  evidence  is 
found  that  he  was  compelled  to  make  and  exhibit  a  master- 
piece before  he  was  admitted  into  the  ranks  of  the  jourtiey- 
men,  nor  did  he  wander  alxnit  during  the  last  year  of  his 
ap|)renticeship  or  the  one  immediately  following  it.  He 
was  in  all  cases,  except  during  emergencies,  required  to 
serve  what  was  known  to  be  the  customary  term,  sometimes 
longer. 

As  the  lK>y  rendend  the  jnost  pr<)fital)le  service  during 
the  latter  years  of  his  apprenticeship,  the  master  was  anxious 
to  retain  him  as  long  as  |)()ssil)le.  It  seems  clear  that  the 
term  of  apprenticeship,  determined  imder  such  conditions, 
was  generally  a  long  one.  and,  being  fixed  by  custom  for 
each  trade,  was  at  a  later  date  accepted  by  many  unions  and 
cmljTMlied  in  their  written  constitutions. 

The  hatting  industry,  a  trade  requiring  skilled  workmen 


5ii]  Customary  Apprenticeship  Rules.  29 

and  one  in  which  the  apprentice  question  has  always  been 
of  much  importance,  both  before  and  since  tlie  formation  of 
imions,  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  slow  change  in 
the  len.c^th  of  the  term  service.  During  the  early  years  of 
the  industry  in  this  cf)untry  the  work  was  performed  entirely 
by  hand  and  each  journeyman  was  required  to  perfect  his 
skill  in  all  branches  of  the  trade  ;  that  is,  at  making,  block- 
ing and  finishing.  The  well-trained  apprentice  was  able  at 
the  end  of  his  term  to  take  the  raw  material  and  work  it  up 
into  a  finished  product.  The  usual  term  of  service  for  the 
apprentice  was  four  years.  About  1840  machinery  began  to 
be  perfected  whereby  hats  could  be  manufactured  far  more 
rapidly.  The  hand-maker  could  make  from  two  to  three 
dozen  hats  per  day,  but  the  same  number  of  workmen,  with 
the  aid  of  the  machine,  could  turn  out  many  times  that 
number. 

Notwithstanding  the  extensive  introduction  of  machinery 
in  this  trade,  subdivision  of  the  work  has  not  followed  ac- 
cordingly, so  that  at  the  present  time  the  same  parts  of  the 
work  as  blocking,  sizing  and  finishing  are  accomplished  by 
machinery,  but  the  trade  still  requires  highly  skilled  labor. 
It  maintains  rigid  but  well-enforced  apprenticeship  rules, 
though  the  term  of  service  has  been  reduced  from  four  to 
three  years. 

Whatever  uniformity  existed  in  connection  with  appren- 
ticeship among  the  various  shops  in  the  same  trade  was 
largely  that  secured  through  force  of  custom.  Aloreover, 
the  lack  of  ready  communication  between  dififerent  parts  of 
the  country  made  it  practically  impossible  for  masters  or 
journeymen  to  secure  anything  like  concerted  action  in  regu- 
lating apprenticeship  or  other  trade  rules,  so  that  those  car- 
rying on  these  industries  gradually  developed  certain  cus- 
toms and  practices,  which,  of  course,  were  local  in  applica- 
tion and  extent. 

Finally,  the  growth  of  the  industrial  unit,  in  which  the 
large  factory  was  substituted  for  the  small  manufacturing 
plant  or  family  :  the  improvement  in  means  of  communication 


30  .If^fTi'iitiLt'shif*  in  .hm'ticini   Trade  Unions.       [512 

ami  trausportalidn,  which  pcrmiitcd  a  kcciKT  competition 
among  matuifacturers ;  llic  control  of  large  amounts  of  capi- 
tal by  the  employers  and  the  acceptance  of  the  principle  of 
individual  bargaining,  all  tended  to  render  less  efficient  the 
former  trade  custcjms  and  to  increase  the  power  and  influ- 
ence of  the  employer  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  journeymen. 
Acconlingly  the  indenture  fell  into  disfavor,  and,  whenever 
possible,  the  employer  brushed  aside  all  trade  customs,  in- 
cluding apprenticesliip  regulations. 


CHAPTER   III. 

Trade-Union  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship. 

The  trade  union  was  cautious,  oftentimes  secret  in  its 
early  efforts  to  regulate  apprenticeship.  The  requirements 
which  it  attempted  to  secure  were  largely  a  continuation 
of  established  usage,  and  the  provision  that  applicants  for 
membership  must  have  previously  served  a  term  as  a  regular 
apprentice  was  the  chief  method  of  enforcing  them. 

The  experience  of  the  printing  trade  in  this  respect  is 
typical  of  early  trade-union  activities.  The  first  printers' 
unions  in  this  country  were  formed  about  1800.  By  1839, 
they  existed  in  practically  all  of  the  eastern  cities,  and  as 
far  south  and  west  as  Louisville  and  St.  Louis.  Up  to  that 
time,  however,  no  attempt  had  been  made  by  any  local  to 
limit  the  number  of  apprentices,  other  than  the  mere  require- 
ment that  applicants  seeking  membership  must  have  com- 
pleted their  term  of  service. 

No  regulation  of  apprenticeship  is  found  in  the  written 
constitution  adopted  by  any  of  the  unions  previous  to  the 
above  date.  The  first  constitution  of  the  Philadelphia  Typo- 
graphical Society,  adopted  in  1802,  contains  the  require- 
ment that  "  no  person  shall  be  eligible  to  become  a  member 
of  this  society,  who  shall  not  have  served  an  apprentice- 
ship satisfactory  to  the  board  of  directors,  to  whom  he  shall 
make  application  in  person,  and  they  shall  thereupon  pro- 
ceed to  the  election  by  ballot,  and,  if  the  candidate  shall 
obtain  a  majority  of  two  thirds  of  the  board  present,  he 
shall  then  be  declared  a  member  of  this  society,  and  receive 
a  certificate  thereof."^-  The  Columbia  Typographical  So- 
ciety of  Washington,  D.  C,  had  practically  the  same  re- 
quirement, while  the  Baltimore  Society,  in  its  constitution 
adopted  in  1832,  declared  that  "  the  indispensable  qualifica- 

*"  Constitution    of    Philadelphia    Typographical    Society,    Philadel- 
phia,  1802,  Art.  XV.     Printed  in   Stewart,  op.  cit. 

31 


32  .tf>f*renticcshi/'  in  .Inwrican   Trade  Unions.       [514 

lions  of  all  persons  licrcaftcr  admitted  as  members  of  this 
society  are,  a  good  moral  character,  industrious  habits,  and 
a  practical  knowledge  of  the  art  and  mystery  of  letteqiress 
printing,  having  accjuired  the  same  by  an  apprenticeship  of 
at  least  four  years'  minority.""  At  a  meeting  of  the  Co- 
lumbia Typographical  SiKiety  held  on  November  i.  1834.  a 
committee  was  appointed  to  consider  the  apprenticeship 
question.  After  seeking  information  from  various  em- 
ployers and  journeymen  in  ditTerent  sections  of  the  country. 
the  committee  reported  an  elalx^ratc  set  of  laws,  with  the 
following  comment  upon  the  limitation  of  apprentices : 

"  .\  rule  directly  limiting  the  number  of  apprentices  in 
our  printing  offices  was  thought  to  be,  on  examination,  so 
liable  to  injustice  and  abuse  between  the  larger  and  smaller 
offices,  so  difficult  in  its  maintenance,  on  account  of  antici- 
pated objections  on  the  part  of  the  employers,  so  embarrass- 
ing in  its  adjustment,  on  account  of  this  constant  fluctua- 
tion of  the  business,  that  the  committee  unanimously  deter- 
mined to  abandon  it."'* 

The  constitution  of  the  Nashville  Typographical  Society, 
adopted  as  late  as  1837,  contained  only  the  statement  that 
"  the  qualifications  for  membership  shall  be  a  good  char- 
acter, iuflustrious  habits,  and  a  good  practical  knowledge 
of  the  art  of  letterpress  printing.  No  person  .shall  be  ad- 
mitted to  membership  in  this  society  who  is  known  to  be 
a  runaway  apprentice." 

The  Typographical  .Society  of  New  Orleans  was  the  first 
local  printers'  union  to  place  a  limit  tipon  the  number  of 
apprentices.  The  constitution  adopted  by  that  body  in 
1839  contains  the  following  provision  as  to  apprentices. 
"  No  member  of  this  association  shall  work  on  any  English 
daily  nK)rning  paper,  on  which  any  a()prentice  may  be 
employed.  (This  article  is  not  considered  applicable  to 
any  apprentice  now  in  such  office).  No  member  of  this 
association  shall  work  on  any  English  paper  or  in  any  book 

''G>nstitution  of  Baltimore  T)T>ographical  Society,  Bahimore,  1832, 
Art.  VI. 

"See  MiniileH  of  Columbia  T>-pogr.iphical  Society,  rcbniary  7, 
1835,  quoted  !iy  Stewart,  of-,  til 


515]  Union  Re^iilatiun  of  Apprenticeship.  33 

or  job  office,  where  any  apprentice  is  employed,  who  may 
not  be  bound  for  a  term  of  not  less  than  four  years  during 
minority.  (This  clause  is  not  to  apply  to  existing  con- 
tracts.)"^'' This  practice  of  limiting  apprentices  initiated 
by  the  New  Orleans  union  was  in  time  imitated  by  all  other 
local  unions,  and  was  finally  adopted  as  a  fixed  policy  by  the 
International  Typographical  Union. 

The  experience  of  the  printing  trade  thus  illustrates  the 
general  trend  of  development.  At  first,  the  local  union 
accepted  the  custom  prevailing  in  regard  to  apprentices. 
Beginners  at  the  trade  were  merely  required  to  satisfy  the 
union  that  they  had  served  the  ordinary  time.  The  next 
step  taken,  represented  by  the  rules  of  the  Baltimore  So- 
ciety, was  an  attempt  by  the  union  to  determine  exactly 
how  long  this  customary  term  should  be.  In  most  cases 
the  four  year  rule  was  adopted,  though  some  unions  ac- 
cepted members  after  they  had  served  three  years,  pro- 
vided the  individual  desired  to  engage  at  but  one  of  the 
two  divisions  of  the  trade,  namely,  composition  or  press- 
work.  Either  because  the  unions  were  weak  and  conse- 
quently unable  to  enforce  this  qualification  in  the  case  of  all 
applicants  for  membership,  or  because  they  found  it  ex- 
pedient at  times  to  yield  somewhat  in  the  matter  of  its 
application,  "  two-thirders  "  and  runaway  apprentices  found 
their  way  into  the  unions  in  such  large  numbers  that  the 
craft  as  a  whole  sufifered  much  from  poor  workmanship, 
and  the  wages  of  the  regular  journeymen  were  seriously 
threatened.  To  meet  this  emergency  and  to  avoid  the  bad 
effects  of  such  a  policy,  the  third  step  was  taken,  that  is, 
the  locals,  led  by  the  Xew  Orleans  union,  actually  limited 
the  number  of  apprentices  in  proportion  to  the  number  of 
journeymen  employed. 

With  the  local  serving  as  the  unit  in  forming  apprentice- 
ship rules,  and  with  each  union  acting  independently,  it 
followed  both  from  the  weakness  of  the  union  and  from 
the  absence  of  ready  communication  between  far  distant 

"  Constitution  of  New  Orleans  Typographical  Association.  1839. 
Art.  XII,  sees.  1-2. 

3 


34  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [51O 

places  that  each  local,  as  affected  by  its  environment,  de- 
veloped its  own  peculiar  ai)|)rentice  rules.  Some  unions, 
gaining  control  of  the  trade  within  the  surrounding 
country,  made  rigid  requirements,  and  these  tended  to  serve 
as  models  for  the  smaller  and  weaker  unions.'* 

Experience,  however,  soon  made  it  clear  that  a  uniform 
and  effective  set  of  apprenticeship  regulations  could  not  be 
secured  in  many  trades  without  the  coo|)cration  of  all 
locals,  and  the  regulation  and  enforcement  of  apprentice- 
ship regulations  became  one  of  the  forces  leading  to  the 
formation  of  international  unions.  The  principles  enunci- 
ated by  the  iron  molders  when  forming  the  first  local  bodies, 
namely,  fraternity  and  protection  against  reduction  of  wages 
and  against  the  evils  of  the  "  berkshire  "  system,  were  enu- 
merated as  the  objects  in  view  in  forming  the  larger 
organization. 

.\t  the  convention  called  in  1850  to  form  a  Xational 
T^-pographical  I'nion,  "  the  apprentice  question  caused  a 
prolonged  discussion.  It  came  up  in  the  form  of  a  recom- 
mendation that  the  number  be  limited,  and.  after  a  general 
concurrence  in  the  idea  that  '  too  many  printers  had  been 
manufactured  of  late  years.'  a  recommendation  to  the  so- 
cieties, it  was  hoped  would  be  organized,  as  well  as  to 
those  already  in  existence,  to  limit  the  number  of  appren- 
tices was  adopted,  and  the  employing  printers  were  urgently 
requested  to  have  apprentices  indentured  for  a  jieriod  of 
not  less  than  five  years."'*  The  same  convention,  meeting 
in  Xcw  York  City.  DcccmlHT  2,  1850.  issued  an  address 
to  the  journeymen  printers  of  the  I'nited  States,  in  which 
it  was  urged  that  the  local  liodies  should  secure  "  the  en- 

"Scvrr.il  yr.nrs  previous  to  the  forni.ition  of  the  Iron  Molders' 
Intrrii.itinn.Tl  Union,  some  foc-ils  K-t<<ic(l  control  of  ahnost  the  entire 
Irarle  within  tlirir  respective  cities,  and  for  some  time  were  ahle  to 
enforce  their  demands  against  the  "berkshire"  system.  At  ,\lbany. 
New  York,  the  ratio  was  one  apprentice  to  every  ten  jojirneymen, 
not  incliidinf;  the  sons  of  jonrneymrn.  This  nilc  was  ri((idly  en- 
forced, btit  Rave  constant  trouble,  and  finally  the  demands  of  the 
union  in  this  respect  led  to  the  Rreat  strike  of  185Q.  in  which 
the  local  was  badly  beaten. 

"  McVirar.  Origin  and  Progress  of  the  Typographical  Union, 
1850-91  (Lansinf?.  Mirliit-mi.  iftjii    t>n  f>-7 


517J  Union  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship.  35 

forcement  of  the  principle  of  limiting  the  number  of  appren- 
tices ;  by  which  measure,  a  too  rapid  increase  in  the  number 
of  workmen,  too  little  care  in  the  selection  of  boys  for  the 
business,  and  the  employment  of  herds  of  half  men  at  half 
wages,  to  the  detriment  of  good  workmen,  will  be  effectively 
prevented." 

But  of  more  significance  still  is  the  fact  that  perhaps 
the  chief  motive  which  started  the  movement  in  1834  to- 
ward the  formation  of  the  National  Typographical  So- 
ciety, was  the  desire  to  prevent  proposed  radical  abuses  of 
the  free  and  unlimited  use  of  apprentices  and  to  secure  a 
more  uniform  and  better  regulated  rule  governing  them. 
The  "  two-thirder "  printers  were  to  be  found  in  most 
localities,  and  had,  from  the  very  beginning,  been  the  cause 
of  much  dissatisfaction  and  of  many  difficulties.  No  at- 
tempt had,  however,  been  made  by  any  local  in  the  trade 
to  limit  the  number  of  apprentices,  and  the  practice  was 
continued  for  many  years  later.  In  fact,  it  seems  evident 
that,  while  the  union  protested  vigorously  against  admitting 
members  who  were  unable  to  prove  that  they  had  served 
the  required  term,  nevertheless,  at  this  time,  they  did  not 
even  claim  the  right  to  actually  limit  the  number  of  appren- 
tices entering  the  trade,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  strike 
had  been  called  by  the  journeymen  in  the  trade  solely  to 
uphold  an  apprentice  rule. 

About  1834  the  apprenticeship  question  was  raised  to 
importance  by  an  announcement  made  by  the  proprietor 
of  an  influential  paper  in  Washington,  who  was  also  printer 
to  the  United  States  Senate,  that  he  proposed  to  estab- 
lish an  institute  in  that  city,  in  which  he  would  engage  a 
large  number  of  boys  at  a  rate  much  lower  than  that  re- 
ceived by  regular  journeymen.  The  Columbia  Typograph- 
ical Society  of  Washington  was  intensely  excited  by  this  new 
proposal,  and  prepared  a  circular  letter  of  protest  to  be  sent 
to  other  leading  unions.  The  agitation  continued,  and.  on 
IMarch  7,  1834,  the  Columbia  Society  passed  a  resolution 
"  that  a  committee  of  seven  members  be  appointed  by  the 


36  .If^f^rcnliii'shif  in  .liiicricitn  Trade  Unions.       [51H 

chair,  whose  duty  it  shall  bo  to  confer  with  each  other,  and 
report  to  this  Society  at  their  next  nieetinj;^  what,  in  their 
opinion,  woultl  be  the  most  |)roper  and  elTectual  course  to 
pursue  to  brinp  about  the  establishment  of  a  national  typo- 
graphical society."  Some  of  the  most  prominent  unions  re- 
sponded to  the  letter  and  condemned,  in  strong  terms,  the 
proposetl  institute.'" 

I'inally.  in  1836,  delegates  from  I'altimore,  New  \\)rk 
City,  Washington.  Harrisburg.  I'hila(leli)hia  and  New  Or- 
leans met  in  Washington  and  organized  the  National  Typo- 
graphical .\ss<x^iation.  adopted  a  constitution,  and  issued 
addresses  to  the  societies  and  jirinters  throughout  the  coun- 
try. In  the  address  to  local  societies  these  bodies  were 
urged  to  reject  any  applicant  for  membership  who  had  not 
served  si.\  years  at  the  trade,  also  to  make  it  unlawful  for 
any  member  of  the  union  to  work  in  a  shop  where  boys  were 
taken  to  serve  as  apprentices  for  less  than  six  years.  While 
it  is  true  that  the  various  l<Kals  had  many  (Uher  grievances 
in  common,  such  as  the  regulation  of  wages  and  treatment 
of  members  who  ha<l  "  ratted."  and  while  many  printers 
desired  the  formation  of  a  national  union  for  the  discussion 
and  regulation  of  these  grievances,  still  the  agitation  of  the 
apprentice  (juestioii,  coming  in  the  precise  manner  that  it 
di<l.  undoubtedly  hastened  the  movement  by  causing  the 
unions  to  sec  more  clearh  tin-  mcessity  of  concerted  action, 
if  their  objects  were  to  be  acc()m|)lished.  In  so  far,  it  wa.s 
largely  responsible  for  the  formation  of  the  National  Societv 
in  183^. 

In  conuneuting  \\\vm  the  im|)<>rlance  ot  the  apprentice 
question,  the  president  of  the  International  I'nioti  of  Urick- 
laycrs  .spoke  to  the  delegates  of  the  second  annual  convention 
as  follows:  "The  system  of  apprenticeship  is  the  very  cor- 
ner stone  of  our  institution,  .md  it  nceived  the  earnest  atten- 
tion of  the  previous  convention,  and.  if  the  article  in  our 
constittition  is  carried  out.  it  will  Ik*  a  monument  that  we 
will  be  proud  f)f.     Hut  the  question  will  be  in  your  hands, 

.1  fuller  .  :  the  controversy  between  General  Duff 

'.-^c!  atul  the  Colu!nl)ia  bociety,  sec  Stewart,  of>.  nt. 


519]  Union  Regulation  of  .lf>prcnticeship.  37 

and  whatever  you  in  your  wisdom  think  will  be  beneficial 
to  it,  I  hope  will  be  adopted." 

The  cigar  makers  did  not  formally  enumerate  the  control 
of  the  apprenticeship  system  as  one  of  the  main  purposes  to 
be  obtained  by  the  formation  of  an  international  union. 
But,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  the  period,  the  follow- 
ing clause  was  inserted  in  the  first  constitution  of  the  inter- 
national union :  "  No  person  shall  be  eligible  to  membership 
in  the  union  unless  he  be  a  white  male  of  the  age  of  eighteen 
years,  and  has  served  an  apprenticeship  of  not  less  than 
three  years."^" 

We  have  seen  that  the  apprentice  question  was  an  influ- 
ence both  in  the  formation  of  local  unions  and  in  the  organi- 
zation of  international  unions.  In  some  cases,  indeed,  it 
was  a  chief  factor,  and,  in  all  the  skilled  trades,  it  played  an 
important  part.  As  the  locals  accepted  well-established  ap- 
prenticeship customs  as  rules  of  the  union,  so  international 
unions  continued  in  the  main  the  apprentice  regulations  in 
force  in  the  locals.  Frequently,  a  few  local  unions  embrace 
a  large  percentage  of  the  membership  of  the  international 
union,  and  the  apprenticeship  rules  worked  out  by  these  large 
and  influential  locals  are  usually  accepted  by  the  central  asso- 
ciation as  indicating  the  needs  of  the  craft  as  a  whole. 

After  the  international  unions  had  been  organized  a  suffi- 
cient length  of  time  for  them  to  see  clearly  their  needs  and 
define  accurately  their  policy,  two  distinct  methods  of  deal- 
ing with  the  apprentice  question  developed. 

(a)  In  some  crafts,  such  as  the  building  trades  and  cigar 
making,  the  local  unions  formulated  apprenticeship  rules  and 
adjusted  them  according  to  local  environment ;  and  the  inter- 
national union  exercised  only  a  general  supervisorv  powder, 
the  rules  adopted  by  the  local  union  being  submitted  to  it 
for  approval. 

(&)  In  other  trades,  such  as  iron  molding  and  glass  blow- 
ing, the  international  union  early  formulated  detailed  ap- 

"  Journal  and  Program  of  the  Twentieth  Convention  of  the  Cigar 
Makers'  International  Union  of  America,  Milwaukee,  September  25, 
1893,  P-  47- 


38  Af'f'rcnticcshif>  in  Anwriciiti  Trade  Unions.       [520 

prcnticeship  rcj^ulations  wliicli  every  local  union  in  any  way 
connected  with  the  international  orp^anizations  was  hound  to 
accept  antl  enforce.  In  some  cases  the  transition  was  more 
pradual ;  thus  full  power  to  determine  apprenticeship  retal- 
iations was  not  ^[ranted  the  Iron  Moldcrs*  International 
I'nion  until  1867.  twelve  years  after  it  was  ortjanized.  Dur- 
ing: that  interval  the  Icxrals  made  and  enforced  their  own 
reg^ulations. 

Unions  regulate  ajjprenticeship  hy  either  one  of  these  two 
methods,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  trade,  the  degree 
of  ci^nipetition  between  the  employers  and  the  efforts  of  the 
employers  to  control  wages.  In  some  industries  the  differ- 
ent shops  were  so  located  and  the  cost  of  operation  so  ad- 
justed that  the  finished  |)roduct  could  be  placed  in  the  mar- 
ket at  practically  the  same  cost  to  each  manufacturer. 
Therefore,  the  right  to  receive  an  extra  number  of  appren- 
tices at  a  wage  very  much  below  the  rate  received  by  regular 
journeymen  gave  a  distinct  advantage  to  the  competitor  pos- 
sessing this  privilege.  When  the  firm  was  powerful  or  the 
union  weak,  this  was  not  difficult  to  accomplish.  For,  al- 
th«)ugli  the  locals  insisted  upon  the  aj)|irenticeship  rules  as 
laid  down  in  the  Unral  constitution,  it  was  and  has  always 
been  a  matter  alxiut  which  the  union  hesitates  to  strike  ex- 
cept for  continued  flagrant  abuse.  The  result  was  that  many 
employers  found  it  easy,  when  dealing  with  the  local  alone, 
to  engage  a  far  greater  number  of  hoys-  than  was  allowed 
under  the  rules  of  the  union.  The  consecpiences  were  the 
admission  of  a  large  number  of  poorly-equipped  workmen 
into  the  trade,  a  decrease  in  current  wages,  and  a  movement 
on  the  part  of  the  leaders  of  the  international  union  to 
secure  uniform  apprentice  laws. 

In  a  diflfcrcnt  class  of  trades,  represented  by  the  cigar 
makers  and  the  building  tra<Ics,  the  Kx:al  was  the  unit  in 
rcg\ilating  all  matters  in  connection  with  apprenticeship. 
Because  of  the  chaMcter  of  the  industry  and  the  widely  dif- 
fering environments  in  which  it  was  carried  on.  a  uniform 
apprenticeship  ratio  was  le»>s  <lesii;ible  than  in  the  trades  of 


5  2i]  Uiiio)i  Regulation  of  Apprenticeship.  39 

the  preceding  group.  Little,  if  any,  machinery  was  used ; 
only  a  small  amount  of  capital  was  needed ;  the  work  was 
carried  on  in  practically  every  locality ;  and  the  article  manu- 
factured by  members  of  different  locals  never  came  into 
direct  competition.  In  addition,  many  unions  of  these 
trades  were  small,  and  located  in  parts  of  the  country 
where  the  trade  could  be  "  picked  up  "  in  non-union  shops. 

Attempts  have  been  made  at  different  intervals  in  several 
of  the  trades  in  this  class  to  introduce  a  national  apprentice- 
ship rule,  but  without  success.  In  at  least  one  of  the  build- 
ing trades  such  regulations  were  enacted  by  the  international 
union  during  the  first  years  of  its  existence.  This  was  the 
Bricklayers'  International  Union,  which  immediately  upon 
its  organization  on  October  16,  1865,  assumed  entire  control 
of  the  apprentice  question,  and  made  uniform  provision  for 
all  local  unions.  In  his  report  to  the  convention,  held  at 
Cincinnati,  Ohio,  in  1867,  the  president  recognized  the  im- 
portance of  the  system  and  stated  that  apprenticeship  was 
"  the  very  corner  stone  of  our  institution,"  and  that,  if  the 
article  of  the  constitution  could  be  carried  out,  the  union 
would  have  achieved  a  great  success.  That  the  law  was  not 
successfully  enforced  was  due,  at  least  in  part,  to  the  locals 
themselves.  For,  in  his  report  to  the  third  convention  of 
the  International  Union,  held  in  1868,  the  president  com- 
plained that  the  apprentice  question  had  caused  much 
trouble,  because  many  unions,  doubtless  in  keeping  with  the 
old  custom  of  "  patrimony,"  permitted  journeymen  to  re- 
ceive their  sons  at  the  trade  in  addition  to  the  two  appren- 
tices allowed  each  workman.  Furthermore,  he  stated  that, 
for  a  long  time,  it  had  been  the  custom  in  Boston  to  allow 
each  employer  three  apprentices,  and  that,  in  attempting  to 
reduce  the  number  so  that  it  would  conform  to  the  union 
rule,  the  local  had  been  greatly  weakened,  in  fact,  almost 
destroyed.  At  this  and  the  following  conference  an  effort 
was  made  to  transfer  the  power  of  regulating  apprentice- 
ship from  the  International  Union  to  the  local  bodies,  so  that 
it  might  be  adjusted  "  to  suit  the  contingencies  existing  in 


40  .l/'fTcntiit'shif*  iti  .Inu'ricitn  Trade  Unions.       [522 

their  (litTerctit  localities."  Il«nvovcr.  it  was  not  until  some 
time  later,  when  it  was  seen  that  the  International  Union 
could  not  successfully  enforce  the  uniform  apprentice  rule, 
that  all  etTorts  in  this  direction  were  ahandoned.  and  the 
locals  assumetl  entire  control,  as  i<  the  case  in  all  the  other 
unions  in  the  building  trades. 

Those  trades  in  which  the  local  union  has  determined  the 
apprenticeship  regulations  have  been  recruited  in  only  a 
small  deprcc  by  journeymen  who  have  undergone  the  pre- 
.scrilK'd  course  of  preliminary  trainins^.  On  the  other  hand. 
in  the  crafts  in  which  the  international  union  enacts  these 
rules,  a  much  larper  per  cent,  of  the  members  have  served 
an  apprenticeship  under  terms  prescribed  by  the  union. 
Ilavinp  once  established  a  uniform  apprenticeship  for  all 
union  shops  of  the  same  trade,  the  international  imion  has 
soupht  to  have  each  local  enforce  the  same  within  its  own 
jurisdiction.  While  these  rules  have  been  modified  from 
time  to  time,  the  international  unions  have  striven  to  main- 
tain a  uniform  law.  fixing  the  number  of  apprentices,  the 
Icnpth  of  service  and  the  method  of  instruction.  The  same 
desire  for  uniformity  has  also  manifested  itself  in  those 
trades  in  which  the  local  formulated  the  laws  ;  but.  luuler 
this  system  of  decentralized  C(Mitrol,  f.ir  less  progress  t<nvard 
securinj^  it  has  been  made. 

In  general,  we  have  noted  tliat  the  unions  in  the  skilled 
trades  early  bej^'an  the  stru^^jle  for  effective  apprenticeship 
rej^ulations,  ami  that  two  distinct  methods  in  dealiu).!  with 
the  .subject  were  developed.  I'.tit  the  particular  method  bv 
which  ai)prentice  rules  were  passed,  whether  by  the  inter- 
national or  the  l(KaI  union,  was  less  important  than  the  de- 
jfrce  of  enforcement.  When  the  international  imion  enacted 
such  laws,  final  authority  as  to  interpretation,  or  .specific 
application  thereof,  was  reserved  to  that  Ixidy  ;  and  the  char- 
ter of  any  local  could  Ik  revoked  in  case  it  refused  to  complv 
with  this  decision.  Yet.  in  the  last  instance,  the  international 
union  depenfled  »i|»nn  the  local  alone  to  enforce  them.  This 
was  from  the  be^inninR  a  weakness  in  the  old  svstcm  of 


523]  Union  Rc[^\ihilioii  of  .Ipf^rcnticcship.  41 

apprenticeship  and  was  one  cause  of  its  ultimate  failure. 
Moreover,  the  mere  fact  that  the  union  alone  assumed  the 
right  to  control  apprenticeship  regulations,  especially  to 
limit  the  number  received,  caused  the  employers  to  oppose 
them  and  to  prevent  their  enforcement  whenever  possible. 
A  long,  bitter  struggle  ensued.  Under  such  circumstances, 
it  was  impossible  for  either  side,  acting  independently,  to 
maintain  an  adequate  apprenticeship  system. 


CIIAITKK    1\. 

Apprenticeship  Determined  by  Tkadi:  Agreement. 

The  continued  prow  th  and  development  of  trade  unionism 
and  tlie  gradual  substitution  of  collective  for  individual  bar- 
gaining rendered  less  potent  the  advantage  of  the  employer 
over  the  employee.  If,  at  any  previous  time,  employers  were 
imwilHng  to  unite  with  their  journeyiuen  in  order  to  change 
unsatisfactory  conditions,  or  refused  to  grant  the  demands 
of  eiuployecs,  they  were  at  a  later  date  compelled  to  do  so 
or  to  take  issue  with  a  strongly  organized  union.  At  this 
stage  employers  formed  associations,  after  which  intelligent 
representatives  from  both  sides  met  in  joint  conference  and 
adjusted,  as  far  as  possible,  all  controversies. 

Among  the  questions  thus  considered  was  that  of  appren- 
ticeship. The  ad(»ption  of  apprentice  rules  by  conciliation. 
while  but  fairly  begun  in  many  trades,  marks  the  final  method 
of  their  enforcement,  and  again  emphasizes  the  fact  that, 
in  order  to  be  effective,  trade  rules  must  be  revised  from 
time  to  time  to  meet  new  conditions. 

Collective  bargaining  has  been  successfully  carried  (mi  m 
the  stove  branch  of  the  iron  molding  industry.  In  connec- 
tion therewith,  apprenticeship  has  been  discussed  to  a  greater 
extent  than  in  any  other  trade.  In  order  to  clearly  under- 
stand the  far-reaching  effect  of  apprenticeship,  the  difficid- 
tics  encountered  in  regulating  it.  and  the  futility  of  either 
side  independently  attempting  such  regtjlati<>n,  it  seems  de- 
sirable to  give  in  some  detail  the  remarkable  struggle  over 
the  apprentice  question  waged  by  the  Stove  Founders'  Na- 
tional Defense  Association,  i'.  c.  the  employers'  association, 
and  the  Iron  Moldcrs'  International  I'nion.  This  example 
of  conciliation  is  perhaps  a  distinctive  rather  than  a  typical 
experience.  The  struggle  carried  on  by  the  two  organiza- 
tions in  their  attempts  to  reach  a  satisfactory  apprentice 
42 


525]  .IpprcnticcsJiip  Determined  by  Trade  A^rccmoit.      43 

ratio  is,  perhaps,  witliout  a  parallel  in  the  history  of  any 
other  union.  But  it  indicates,  possibly,  the  future  method 
of  regulating  apprenticeship. 

At  the  nineteenth  session  of  the  Iron  Moldcrs'  Union,  held 
in  1890,  the  following  resolution  was  adopted:  "Resolved, 
That  it  is  the  sense  of  this  convention  that  the  incoming 
executive  board  be  empowered  to  confer  with  an  executive 
board  of  the  National  Defense  Association  for  the  purpose 
of  taking  into  consideration  a  discussion  of  the  apprentice 
question  as  requested  by  said  association.  Resolved,  That 
if  after  said  conference  it  is  the  unanimous  opinion  of  the 
executive  board  that  the  ratio  of  apprentices  should  be  in 
the  proportion  of  twenty  per  cent,  to  eighty  per  cent,  an 
amendment  should  be  submitted  to  the  local  unions,  said 
local  unions  to  vote  '  aye '  and  '  nay,'  and  it  shall  require 
a  two-thirds  vote  to  carry  said  amendment."-^ 

The  only  feature  of  apprentice  regulation  considered  at 
the  first  joint  conference,  held  in  Chicago,  March  25,  1891, 
was  the  limitation  of  the  number  of  boys ;  and  this  question 
remained  the  dominant  issue  in  all  subsequent  discussions  of 
apprenticeship.  At  the  first  conference  neither  side  pos- 
sessed adequate  data  upon  which  to  base  a  just  ratio,  and, 
after  passing  the  following  resolutions,  the  subject  was  dis- 
missed. "  Whereas  the  average  term  of  a  molder's  produc- 
tive capacity  is  found  by  statistical  information  to  be  not 
more  than  fourteen  and  a  half  years  and  that  the  law  of  the 
Iron  ]Molders'  Union  restricting  the  proportion  of  appren- 
tices to  one  to  eight,  with  one  for  each  shop,  compels  manu- 
facturers by  necessity  to  disregard  such  proportion  and  oper- 
ate open  shops  in  order  to  supply  the  demand ;  therefore,  it 
is  requisite  that  the  question  receive  an  immediate  investi- 
gation and  readjustment  upon  a  reasonable  basis." 

At  the  second  conference,  in  1892,  the  first  measure  con- 
sidered was  one  designed  to  change  and  liberalize  the  ap- 
prenticeship rules  of  the  union.  The  principles  which  the 
members  of  the  conference  decided  should  be  incorporated 

^  Proceedings  of  the  Nineteenth  Convention  of  the  Iron  Molders' 
Union,  1890,  p.  83. 


44  .■lff*rt'ittii-t'shif>  in  .Inicricivi  Trade  L^nions.       [526 

in  an  aprccniciit  hctwcon  tlio  two  orpaiiizations  were  set 
fortli  in  three  ditTerent  articles.  The  first  of  these  had  ref- 
erence to  tlic  hniitation  of  apprentices,  and  the  second  and 
tliird  related  to  the  term  of  service  and  to  the  manner  in 
which  instrnction  should  he  piven  those  received.  In  coni- 
mentinjx  upon  the  proposed  chancres,  the  editor  of  the  Iron 
Mohlers'  Journal  said  that  "  the  three  ahove  clauses  were 
unanimously  agreed  upon  after  the  most  careful  considera- 
tion as  a  measure  that  woidd  tend  to  harmonize  ditTerences 
between  the  two  organizations  on  account  of  the  restrictions 
and  exactions  under  our  present  system."-* 

.\lthouj.jh  considerable  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  by 
the  leaders  of  the  union  when  urging  their  members  to  grant 
the  proposed  increase  of  apprentices,  nevertheless,  when  a 
circular  calling  for  a  vote  thereon  was  submitted,  the  second 
anrl  third  articles  were  accepted,  but  the  first  article,  pro- 
viding for  additional  apprentices,  was  rejected. 

When  addressing  the  twentieth  convention  of  the  Iron 
Molders'  Union,  held  in  i8<^5.  President  Fox  of  that  organi- 
zation stated  that,  by  special  inquiry  on  his  travels,  he  had 
found  that,  in  some  places,  fewer  apprentices  than  allowed 
by  the  union  ratio,  that  is,  one  to  every  eight  journeymen, 
were  at  work  ;  in  other  places  there  were  as  many  appren- 
tices as  journeymen,  and  in  still  other  localities  apprentices 
were  largely  in  the  majority.  I'urthermore,  a  general  aver- 
age of  the  mnnl)er  at  l)ench  and  stove  molding  revealed  a 
ratio  of  one  to  four.  The  ratio  of  one  to  six  could,  he 
thought,  soon  be  allowed  l)y  the  union.  lUit  the  C(»nvetition 
did  not  meet  again  imtil  March.  i8<)<).  .Ml  negotiations 
were  conducte<l  at  the  conference,  where  lKith  parties  yielded 
f>n  the  apprentice  ratio  only  when  other  concessions  were 
granted  in  connection  with  wages.  ,\t  one  time.  Mr.  Castle 
of  the  Defense  Assf)ciatif>n  offered  a  resolution  to  alx>lish 
the  "  berkshire  "  system,  provided  an  apprentice  ratio  of 
one  to  four  were  allowefl.  Presid<'nt  I-'ox  replied:  "The 
'  l)crkshire  '  system  exists  in  very  few  of  the  stove  shops 
today,  and  I  believe  the  day  is  near  at  band  when  it  will  pass 

**  Iron  Moldcn'  Journal.  February.  1893.  p.  5. 


527]  Apprenticeship  Determined  by  Trade  Agreement.      45 

away  entirely.  For  the  sole  purpose  of  securing  its  aboli- 
tion, I  do  not  feel  justified  in  advocating  a  change  in  our 
ratio,  but  in  order  that  our  position  might  be  strengthened 
and  to  demonstrate  that  ours  is  not  an  arbitrary  and  unjusti- 
fiable one,  I  would  suggest  that  statistics  be  secured  from  all 
local  unions  and  on  the  line  of  those  asked  for  in  the  editorial 
columns  of  the  June  Journal,  and  that  they  be  submitted 
to  the  executive  board  to  take  such  action  or  make  such 
recommendations  as  in  their  judgment  seems  necessary. 
Should  they  determine  that  a  change  of  the  ratio  be  advisa- 
ble, a  suitable  amendment  ought  to  be  drawn  up  and  sub- 
mitted for  the  referendum  vote."-- 

In  the  spring  of  1901,  after  the  collection  of  much  evi- 
dence by  both  sides,  it  was  agreed  by  those  at  the  conference 
that  the  legitimate  needs  of  the  trade  demanded  an  appren- 
tice ratio  of  one  to  five,  and  accordingly,  after  much  favor- 
able comment  and  persuasion  through  the  columns  of  the 
Journal,  the  proposition  was  submitted  to  members  of  the 
union  for  action.  Returns  were  not  made  by  more  than 
two  fifths  of  the  membership.  Still  the  one  to  five  proposi- 
tion was  overwhelmingly  defeated  by  a  vote  of  15,842  to 
504.  A  proposition  submitted  at  the  same  time  to  establish 
a  ratio  greater  than  one  to  five  and  less  than  one  to  eight 
met  a  similar  fate  by  a  vote  of  12,314  to  3,978. 

This  vote  manifested  an  extreme  conservatism  \vhich  was 
hardly  short  of  stubbornness  on  the  part  of  the  members  of 
the  local  unions,  who  thus  refused  for  a  second  time  to  sanc- 
tion a  proposition  based  upon  data  collected  by  both  sides  ; 
one,  moreover,  which  every  leader  of  the  union  advocated, 
and  the  rejection  of  which  threatened  to  cause  a  serious  rup- 
ture in  the  friendly  relations  existing  between  the  Iron  ]\Iold- 
ers'  Union  and  the  Defense  Association.  The  ratio  of  one  to 
eight  had  been  embodied  in  the  laws  of  the  union  for  about 
forty  years.  Moreover,  since  the  beginning  of  the  confer- 
ences in  1891,  the  supply  of  workmen  ordinarily  received 
during  strikes  had  been  largely  cut  off.  In  fact,  there  was 
little  doubt  that,  if  the  union  ratio  had  been  strictly  adhered 

~  Iron  Holders'  Journal,  April,  1899,  p.  162. 


46  .Iff'ri'ntici'sliif'  in  .Itnt'riiwt   Trade  Unions.       [528 

to,  the  siij)j)ly  of  jouriKviiRMi  wmild  have  l)een  inadequate  to 
meet  the  legitimate  demands  of  tlie  trade. 

It  would  seem  that  such  a  decisive  expression  of  opinion 
as  the  recorded  vote  indicated  would  have  settled  the  matter 
for  at  least  a  few  years ;  but  President  Fox,  undaunted  by 
the  result,  presented  a  most  vigorous  report  on  the  subject 
to  the  convention  of  the  iron  moldcrs,  which  convened  in 
1902.  He  not  only  expressed  his  disappointment  at  the 
defeat  of  the  proposition,  but.  in  a  measure,  attacked  the 
system  of  rcferendinn  voting,  and  ventured  the  opinion  that 
the  matter  should  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  leaders  of 
the  union,  who  are  always  most  active  in  bringing  about  the 
needed  reforms.  He  declared  that  "  while  the  referendum 
vote  is  luidoubtedly  founded  upon  correct  principles,  the 
result  of  its  use  in  lalxir  organizations  has  not  always  been 
in  harmony  with  progressive  thought.  It  is  an  unfortunate 
fact,  but  truth  compels  me  to  say  it.  that  our  members  do 
not  give  important  questions  submitted  to  their  decision  the 
careful  study  and  intelligent  thought  they  should,  but  allow 
themselves  to  be  swayed  by  their  prejudices  or  their  fears, 
or  display  by  their  indifTerencc  and  their  failure  to  record 
their  opinion  their  lack  of  interest  in  propositions  submitted. 
In  my  experience  with  the  Iron  Moldcrs'  Union — and  it  is 
the  experience  of  nearly  every  lalx)r  organization — it  has 
devolved  upon  the  higher  intelligence  of  the  leaders  of  our 
membership  in  convention  assembled  to  initiate  itnportant 
reforms  or  take  advanced  ground  in  our  movcjuent.  It 
seems  to  me  our  laws  shotdd  l)e  such  as  would  permit  us  to 
adapt  them  readily  to  extraordinary  emergencies.  In  this 
connection  I  was  fjteply  and  favorably  impressed  by  a  state- 
ment of  Brother  D.  A.  Hays,  president  of  the  Glass  Bottle 
Hlowcrs'  .'\ssociatinn.  in  a  recent  article.  Referring  to  the 
agreement  of  his  organization  with  the  Manufacturers'  Asso- 
ciation on  the  regulation  of  apprentices,  he  says  that.  '  in 
1893,  owing  to  the  general  depression  in  business,  many  of 
otir  men  were  idle,  and  the  Manufacturers'  Association, 
realizing  that  to  increase  the  number  of  blowers  would  be 


529]  Apprenticeship  Determined  by  Trade  Agreement.      47 

to  put  an  additional  burden  upon  us,  voluntarily  agreed  to 
take  no  new  apprentices  for  that  year.  In  like  manner,  we 
last  year,  finding  that  under  the  prosperous  condition  of 
the  glass  industry,  the  number  of  apprentices  to  which  the 
manufacturers  were  entitled  under  the  former  agreement 
between  the  two  associations  would  not  be  sufficient  to 
meet  their  requirements,  voluntarily  increased  the  number 
of  apprentices.'  This  to  my  view  is  a  very  equitable  ar- 
rangement." 

These  strong  words  of  the  president  were  addressed  to 
the  convention  of  iron  molders  held  in  1902,  at  which  meet- 
ing special  efforts  were  made  to  increase  the  ratio  of 
apprentices.  A  committee  from  the  Defense  Association 
attended  the  session,  and  stated  upon  the  floor  of  the  con- 
vention the  conditions  of  the  trade  and  their  imperative 
need  for  additional  apprentices.  The  remarks  of  the  em- 
ployers were  supplemented,  enforced  and  recommended  by 
the  officers  of  the  Iron  Molders'  Union.  The  committee 
appointed  to  consider  the  apprentice  question  reported  that, 
after  hearing  the  representatives  of  the  Defense  Associa- 
tion and  believing  that  trade  conditions  warranted  such  a 
change,  they  recommended  the  adoption  of  an  apprentice 
ratio  of  one  to  six.  A  minority  report  of  the  committee 
recommended  a  ratio  of  one  to  seven.  An  additional  reso- 
lution was  introduced  granting  power  to  the  national  officers 
to  negotiate  an  agreement  with  the  employers,  but,  on  the 
final  vote,  the  three  propositions  were  voted  down,  and  the 
ratio  of  one  to  eight  continued  in  force.  Two  reasons  may 
be  given  for  this  action.  In  the  first  place,  the  employers 
had  asked  for  the  radical  change  of  ratio  from  one  to  eight 
to  one  to  four.  At  no  time  was  there  any  hope  that  the 
convention  would  grant  such  an  increase,  while  the  mere 
asking  aroused  the  suspicions  of  the  delegates  as  to  the 
good  intentions  of  the  employers.  Again,  the  impracti- 
cability of  administering  a  law  of  limited  application,  for 
the  ratio  voted  upon  was  to  apply  only  to  members  of  the 
National  Defense  Association,  was  recognized,  and  it  was 


4S  Af'f'rciitict'shif*  in  AnicriciVi  Trade  ihiions.       [530 

urpcd  that  the  apphcation  of  such  a  law  would  lead  to 
serious  dirticultics. 

When  the  proposition  to  allow  the  ratio  of  one  to  five 
met  an  overwhelming  defeat  in  the  vote  of  1901.  the  friendly 
relations  between  the  Iron  Molders'  Union  and  the  13efense 
Association  were  seriously  threatened,  as  the  employers 
frankly  stated  that  the  lej^itimate  business  demands  neces- 
sitated additional  apprentices.  However,  the  crisis  was 
happily  thouph  illegally  averted,  for.  in  March,  1902.  tem- 
porary arranj^ements  were  made  whereby  employers  who 
under  the  existing:  ratio  could  not  secure  enoupli  molders 
were  piven  the  privilege  of  taking  on  additional  boys, 
provided  a  careful  investijjation  had  been  made  and  the 
claims  of  the  employer  confirmed.  In  making  such  an 
agreement,  the  officers  of  the  union  exceeded  their  lepal 
authority.  But  since  the  members  had  been  obstinate  in 
refusing:  a  more  lilx'ral  ratio,  it  was  in  their  opinion  a  case 
of  the  end  justifying  the  means,  .so  that  instead  of  sever- 
ing relations  with  the  Defense  .Association,  they  arranged 
to  evade  the  law  and  grant  the  much  needed  apprentices. 
In  reporting  this  agreement  to  the  convention,  the  presi- 
dent urged  that  bo<ly  to  api)rove  the  action  taken,  but  with- 
out success. 

At  the  conference  held  March  19.  njo^.  the  employers 
presented  a  resolution  which  provide<l  that  the  limitation 
of  apprentices  .should  l>c  discontinued  for  one  year,  that 
the  president  of  each  association  or  their  representatives 
should  Ik?  given  the  power  to  determine  the  number  of 
apprentices  to  be  received  by  an  employer,  and  that  all 
apprentices  .shouUI  serve  four  years.  The  molders  intro- 
duced a  resolution  to  the  effect  that,  when  an  employer 
sufTere<l  from  an  insufficient  number  of  journeymen,  he 
.should  report  to  the  president  of  the  Defense  .Association. 
If  he  found  the  condition  as  represented,  he  should  call 
the  attention  of  the  president  of  the  Iron  Molders"  Union, 
whose  cluty  it  would  be  to  take  up  the  matter  with  the  local 
concerned  and  urge  them  to  give  relief.  Hoth  propositions 
were  finallv  withdrawn. 


53  i]  .Ipprenticeship  Determined  by  Trade  Agreement.      49 

At  tlie  Chicaj^o  conference  held  in  March,  1904,  a  reso- 
kition  was  unanimously  adopted,  which  stated  "  that  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  no  agreement  has  been  reached  by 
and  between  the  Defense  Association  and  the  Iron  Molders' 
Union  on  the  apprentice  question  and  because  of  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  possibility  of  more  or  less  friction,  it  is 
agreed  that,  whenever  a  member  of  the  Defense  Association 
finds  he  cannot  secure  the  molders  he  may  require  for  the 
needs  of  his  business,  the  question  shall  be  referred  to  the 
presidents  of  the  two  associations  or  their  representatives 
for  investigation  and  relief.  If  it  be  found  that  the 
foundryman  is  entitled  to  relief,  he  shall  be  allowed  to 
employ  such  additional  number  of  apprentices  as  shall 
be  mutually  agreed  upon." 

The  conference  in  March,  1904,  was  called  by  the  employ- 
ers to  consider  a  reduction  of  fifteen  per  cent,  in  wages.  No 
reduction  was  granted,  but  the  concession  on  the  appren- 
tice ratio  was  agreed  to.  Statistics  given  by  the  employers 
at  this  conference  demonstrated  that  the  ratio  in  foundries 
operated  by  their  members  was  slightly  above  one  to  five, 
and  in  independent  shops  a  fraction  above  one  to  four. 
These  data  had  been  verified  by  officers  of  the  Iron  Molders' 
Union,  and  were  regarded  as  correct  by  both  parties.  At 
a  meeting  of  the  executive  board  of  the  Iron  Molders' 
Union,  June  18,  1904,  the  conference  agreement  of  one  to 
five  was  approved,  but  it  was  to  apply  only  to  Association 
foundries.  In  September,  1904,  a  circular  was  issued  from 
the  headquarters  of  the  Iron  Molders'  Union  calling  for 
a  vote  on  the  question  of  empowering  the  conference  com- 
mittee of  the  Iron  Molders'  Union  to  enter  into  an  agree- 
ment with  the  Stove  Founders'  Defense  Association  in 
order  to  establish  an  apprentice  ratio  of  one  to  five  in 
foundries  controlled  by  members  of  that  Association.  The 
leaders  of  the  union  exerted  all  possible  influence  within 
their  power  to  carry  this  proposition.  It  was  approved  by 
the  executive  board,  by  a  meeting  of  business  agents,  by 
prominent  ex-officials.  The  September  and  October  num- 
4 


50  .lf'f>rt'iilict'sh{f>  in  .Inu'rioifi   Trade  I'uious.       [532 

bcrs  of  the  journal  were  also  devoted  to  its  discussion  with 
the  result  that,  in  Dcccniher.  1904,  it  was  carried  by  a 
small  majority.  Thus  ended  a  lonp  weary  strupfple  of 
thirteen  vears.  carried  on  by  the  Defense  Association  and 
by  officials  of  the  Iron  Moldcrs'  I'nion  to  increase  the 
number  of  apprentices  in  shops  devoted  to  stove  molding. 

The  policy  of  the  Iron  Moldcrs  in  submitting  the  appren- 
ticeship rules  to  arbitration  is  typical  of  the  present  treat- 
ment of  such  rules  in  many  loadincf  trades,  especially  in 
those  crafts  in  which  the  employers  have  formed  organiza- 
tions. Perhaps  the  most  strikiiifj  feature  of  the  plan  in  the 
Glass  Blowers  is  the  businesslike  manner  in  which  the  ratio 
may  be  adjusted  to  the  actual  needs  of  the  trade. 

Another  imjvtrtant  development,  doubtless  brought  for- 
ward by  submitting  the  apprenticrship  rules  to  conciliation, 
was  the  collection  of  data  concerning  apprenticeship  from 
the  shops  in  active  operation.  This  practice  undoubtedly 
arose  out  of  the  need  of  the  lv»ard  of  conciliation  for  exact 
information  on  which  to  ba-^c  the  apprentice  ratio.  As 
there  is  no  evidence  that  any  systematic  collection  of  in- 
formation was  attempted  by  the  early  unions,  it  seems  clear 
that  the  early  unions  did  nothing  more  than  make  a  guess 
at  the  mmibcr  of  apprentices  needed  in  each  trade.  In 
commenting  upon  the  subject,  a  protninent  member  of  the 
union  remarked  that  "  the  ap|irentice  ratio  was  of  our  own 
creation,  of  arbitrary  construction,  and  could  not  even 
plead  scientific  exactness  as  an  excuse  for  its  existence. 
Those  who  were  responsible  for  the  one  to  eight  ratio 
could  not  defend  it  save  as  an  arbitrary  limitation.  It  was 
a  mere  guess  at  what  would  be  a  fair  thing."""' 

The  same  can  Ix?  said  of  practically  every  trade,  for 
the  union  leaders  admit  that  no  adequate  collection  of  data 
nor  scientific  stiuly  as  to  what  should  be  the  real  ratio 
has  been  made.  As  a  result,  the  ratio  established  was  often 
unfair,  and  in  many  ca.ses  was  disregarded  by  the  employers. 
In  fact,  it  was  argued  by  those  desiring  a  rigidly  enforced 

"  ir,.i,  \i,.i,i^rt'  Jotirnal,  Sq>tcmlKT,  1904,  p.  663. 


533]  ^^pprcnticcshi[>  Determined  by  Trade  Agreement.      51 

uniform  ratio  that  such  a  law,  even  thou^di  the  ratio  were 
low,  would  produce  no  more  journeymen  than  would  be  al- 
lowed where  the  ratio  was  high  but  not  enforced.  In  com- 
menting upon  the  desirability  of  establishing  a  uniform  ratio 
of  apprentices,  the  editor  of  the  Iron  ]\[oldcrs'  Journal  gave 
as  his  opinion  that  "  a  careful  reading  of  the  various 
articles  bearing  upon  the  apprentice  question,  in  the  Sep- 
tember and  October  Journals,  will  remove  the  opinion  held 
by  some  that  changing  the  ratio  from  one  to  eight  to  one 
to  five  would  increase  the  number  of  apprentices  employed 
in  the  stove  foundries.  The  change,  if  made,  would  only 
be  a  change  of  figures  and  not  a  change  in  reality,  as  the 
average  ratio  in  existence  to-day  is  practically  one  to  five. 
It  has  been  at  this  ratio  for  the  past  forty  years,  and,  before 
that  time,  it  was  even  larger.  It  would  mean,  however,  that 
the  stove  manufacturers,  who  to-day  employ  one  boy  to 
every  two  or  three  journeymen,  would  be  reduced  to  one  to 
five,  while  the  manufacturer,  who  employed  one  to  eight, 
would  be  given  the  opportunity  of  increasing  the  number 
of  apprentices  in  his  employ.  The  total  number  of  appren- 
tices employed  in  the  country  would  not  be  increased,  but, 
instead  of  the  present  unsatisfactory  condition  that  exists 
where  one  employer  has  a  ratio  of  one  to  two  while  the 
other  is  limited  to  one  to  eight,  all  stove  manufacturers 
would  be  placed  upon  an  equality."'* 

The  general  purpose  of  the  apprenticeship  system,  namely, 
to  provide  an  adequate  supply  of  competent  workmen,  has 
been  practically  the  same  from  the  beginning  of  the  trades 
in  this  country  to  the  present  time,  but  special  phases  of 
it  have  been  emphasized  at  different  periods.  During  the 
early  period,  the  master  was  not  restricted  in  employing 
apprentices,  and  often  engaged  a  large  number  in  order 
to  receive  the  benefit  of  their  low  wages.  The  opposite 
tendency  was  emphasized  by  the  union;  for  the  interest  of 
the  journeyman  was  largely  considered,  and  a  rigid  limi- 

**  Iron  Molders'  Journal,  October,  1904,  p.  750. 


52  Apprenticeship  in  Aineriain  Trade  Unions.       [534 

tation  made  of  tlu-  miiuhcr  received.  The  feature,  greatly 
emphasized  at  the  present  time  especially  in  those  trades 
in  which  the  finished  product  enters  into  keen  competition, 
is  the  uniform  ratio  for  all  competing  shops.  In  securing 
this  object,  conciliation  has  been  the  method  most  generally 
adopted. 


PART  II. 
DESCRIPTIVE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Extent  of  Present  Union  Apprenticeship  Regulations. 

Of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty  national  and  international 
trade  unions  with  a  total  of  1,676,200  members,  affiliated  in 
1904  with  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  fifty  unions, 
with  a  membership  of  766,417,  do  not  attempt  to  maintain 
apprenticeship  systems.  These  fifty  unions  may  be  divided 
into  four  classes. 

(a)  Thirty-five  unions  of  unskilled  workmen  form  the 
first  group."^      The  workmen  in  these  unions,  by  serving 

"Agents  Association,  American. 

Bill  Posters  and  Billers  of  America,  The  National  Alliance  of. 

Blast  Furnace  Workers  and  Smelters  of  America,  International 
Association  of. 

Brick,  Tile  and  Terra  Cotta  Workers'  Alliance,  International. 

Bridge  and  Structural  Iron  Workers,  International  Association  of. 

Car  Workers,  International  Association  of. 

Clothing  Makers,  Special  Order  of. 

Flour  and  Cereal  Mill  Emploj'es,  International  Union  of. 

Garment  Workers  of  America,  The  United. 

Glass  House  Employees,  International  Association  of. 

Heat,  Frost,  General  Insulators  and  Asbestos  Workers  of  America, 
National  Association  of. 

Hod  Carriers  and  Building  Laborers'  Union  of  America,  Inter- 
national. 

Hotel  and  Restaurant  Employees,  International  Alliance,  and  Bar- 
tenders' International  League  of  America. 

Interior  Freight  Handlers'  and  Warehousemen's  International 
Union. 

Ladies'  Garment  Workers'  Union,  International. 

Letter  Carriers  of  the  United  States  of  America,  National  Asso- 
ciation of. 

Longshoremen,  ]\Iarine  and  Transport  Workers'  Association,  In- 
ternational. 

Maintenance-of-Way  Employees,  International  Brotherhood  of. 

Mattress,  Spring  and  Bedding  Workers'  International  Union. 

Mine  Workers  of  America,  United. 

53 


54  ^'l/*f*rcnticcship  in  .Inu'rican  Trade  Unions.       [536 

a  sliort  time  with  their  follow  workincn  as  instructors, 
obtain  a  knowledge  of  the  w(jrk  whidi  enables  them 
to  perform  it  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  Many  work- 
men engagetl  in  these  industries  were  formerly  employed 
in  one  of  the  more  skilled  trades,  but  through  inability  or 
misfortune,  have  been  forced  into  places  where  less  skill 
is  demanded.  I'or  example,  the  membership  of  the  Bridge 
and  Structural  Iron  Workers'  L'nion  includes  many  work- 
men who  were  previously  emi)l(\vfd  as  sailors,  ship  builders, 
or  in  one  <if  the  building  trades.  The  short  period  of 
training  re^iuired  of  the  structural  iron  worker  and  the 
high  wage  usually  paid  to  him,  due  to  the  risk  involved  and 
the  effective  organization  maintained,  induce  those  who 
have  not  thoroughly  mastered  their  own  craft  or  have 
lost  their  former  position  tf>  enter  the  trade.  Apprentice 
requirements  are  not  demanded  of  a|iplicants  seeking  ad- 
mission to  these  unions  for  the  obvitius  reason  that  men  of 
ordinary  ability  and  |)hysical  endurance  are,  after  a  very 
short  period  of  training,  suflficiently  competent  to  perform 
the   required    work. 

(b)   The  second  group  numbers  eleven  unions,  including 
four  not  affiliated  with  the  Federation  of  Labor.-*     Seven 


Oil  and  Gas  Well  Workers,  International  Brotherhood  of. 

Paper  Box  Workers'  International  Union  of  America. 

Paper  Makers  of  ,-\nicrica.  United  Brotherhood  of. 

ytiarry  Workers'  International  l'nion  of  North  America. 

Rul)t)cr  Workers'  Union  of  .America,  Anialgamated. 

Seamen's  Union  of  America.  International. 

Shirt,  Waist  and  Latmdry  Workers'  International  Union. 

Spinners  Association  of  .\merica.   National. 

Street  and  Klectric  Railway  Mmployees  of  America,  .Amalgamated 
A.^»ociation  of. 

Switchmen's  Union  of  North  .America. 

Teamsters,  International  HrotherhiMid  of. 

Textile   Workers  of   America,   United. 

Theatrical  .Stage  Mmployees  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  In- 
ternational Alliance  of. 

Tin  Plate  Workers'  International  Protective  Association  of 
America. 

Tohacco  Workers'  International  Union. 

**Coal  Hoisting  Kngineers,  National  Brotherhood  of. 

Commercial  Telegraphers'  Union  of  America. 

I-ocomotive  Kngineers,  Ctrand  International  Brotherhood  of. 

Locomotive  Tiremcn.  Brotherhood  of. 


537]    Extent  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Regulations.         55 

out  of  the  eleven  are  railway  unions.  In  these  trades, 
highly  skilled  and  well  trained  service  is  required;  but  the 
unions  have  never  maintained  apprenticeship  regulations. 
Those  engaged  in  any  of  the  trades  contained  in  this  other 
class  do  receive  a  rigid  and  often  a  long  training.  The 
terms  demanded  of  beginners,  as  well  as  any  future  pro- 
motion of  employees,  are,  however,  matters  not  under  the 
direction  of  the  union  but  entirely  within  the  control  of  the 
employers.  This  is  made  imperative  from  the  nature  and 
importance  of  the  work  to  be  performed.  The  trades  of 
this  group  represent  activities  that  must,  in  order  to  prop- 
erly protect  human  life  and  valuable  property,  be  per- 
formed with  great  promptness  and  care.  For  example, 
the  telegrapher  must  be  so  accurate  in  transmitting  his 
messages  and  so  prompt  in  reporting  or  dispatching  his 
trains  that  all  those  desiring  to  learn  the  trade  must  not 
simply  engage  themselves  for  a  stated  term  of  years,  as  is 
required  of  regular  apprentices  in  most  other  trades,  but 
must  serve  until  they  have  acquired  sufficient  skill  to  assure 
the  employer  that  they  are  competent  and  may  be  safely 
trusted  in  responsible  positions.  Moreover,  some  of  the 
trades  in  this  group  are  recruited  by  promotion  from  a  less 
skilled,  but  intimately  associated  craft.  Thus  the  heavy 
physical  labor  performed  by  members  of  the  International 
Brotherhood  of  Stationary  Firemen  requires  the  strength 
and  endurance  of  men  rather  than  of  boys,  and,  therefore, 
this  union  maintains  no  regular  system  of  apprenticeship. 
But  the  constant  intimate  relations  of  the  fireman  and  the 
engineer  enable  the  former  to  gain  gradually  a  practical 
knowledge  of  the  duties  of  the  latter,  and  it  is  in  this 
manner  that  most  engineers  are  trained.  There  is  not  the 
slightest  opportunity  for  a  boy  to  learn  this  trade  as  an 

Railroad  Telegraphers,  The  Order  of. 

Railroad  Trainmen,  Brotherhood  of. 

Railway  Clerks,  International  Association  of. 

Railway  Conductors  of  America,  Order  of. 

Railway  Expressmen  of  America,  Brotherhood  of.        , 

Stationary  Firemen,  International  Brotherhood  of. 

Steam  Engineers,  International  Union  of. 


56  .-//'/'/. •;;//"<<-.c/m7'  i'm  .Inu'riciin   Trade  Unions.       [538 

ordinary  aj)[)rcnticc.  A  majority  of  the  members  in  these 
unions  hej^an  in  a  humble  way  with  a  railway  com|iany, 
and  have  gradually  worked  their  way  up  to  their  present 
|>ositions. 

(f)  In  trades  of  the  third  class,  a  minute  subdivision 
of  the  processes  of  production  has  been  made,  accompanied 
in  most  cases  by  the  introduction  of  macliincry.  The  opera- 
tion performed  by  each  j)articular  individual,  instead  of 
being  complex  or  multiple  as  formerly,  when  one  person 
completed  the  entire  product,  has  become  very  simple.  In 
the  larj^e  plants,  therefore,  where  the  division  of  labor  has 
taken  place,  all  apprentice  requirements  have  been  abolished. 
Al)out  seven  trades  may  be  placed  in  this  class. -"•  How- 
ever, it  must  not  be  inferred  that  in  such  trades  no  skilled 
workmen  are  employed.  On  the  contrary,  a  part  of  the 
workmen  develop  remarkable  skill,  and  are  reckoned  as 
hiph-priced  men,  although  possessing  slight,  if  any,  ability 
in  making  other  parts  of  the  same  article.  If.  however, 
the  artisan  possesses  sufficient  ability  and  is  adept  in  the 
use  of  his  tools,  he  is  able  to  perform  the  work  in  a  satis- 
factory manner  after,  at  the  greatest,  one  year's  time. 

While  machinery  is  greatly  used  in  these  trades  the  old 
processes  have  not  been  entirely  dispensed  with.  Thus, 
at  the  present  time,  in  some  places  shoes  are  made  exclu- 
sively by  hand ;  in  others,  almost  entirely  by  machinery ; 
while,  in  still  other  factories,  both  methods  are  used.  A 
l)eginner  who  wishes  to  learn  the  trade  in  a  shop  where 
only  hand  workers  are  employed  is  required  to  serve  a 
long  term  as  an  apprentice  that  he  may  become  an  all- 
round,  highly  skilled  workman.  P.ut  the  Ixiy  who  enters 
a  large  factory  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  trade  finds 

**  Boot    and    Shoe   Workers'    I'nion. 

Carriage  and  Wagon  Workers'  Internationnt  I'nion  of  North 
America. 

Garment  Workers  of  America,  The  United. 

Glove    Workers'    Union   of   America,    International. 

Meat  Cutters  and  Butcher  Workmen  of  North  America,  .^malga- 
maled. 

Tack  Makers'  Protective  I'nion  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Trxfilr    Workrrs    nf    America,    Unitcf! 


539]     I^-^'tcnt  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Regulations.         57 

an  opportunity  to  acquaint  himself  with  only  one  or  two 
parts  of  it,  and  is  not  compelled  to  serve  an  apprenticeship. 
Certainly,  it  is  true  in  the  boot  and  shoe  industry,  and 
doubtless  in  all  other  trades  of  this  group,  that  a  very 
large  percentage  of  the  articles  produced  are  manufactured 
in  large  factories,  where  the  most  important  machinery  is 
used.  These  plants  disclose  the  real  tendencies  and  condi- 
tions of  these  trades,  and  in  such  establishments  the  appren- 
tice is  no  longer  found. 

In  the  wagon  and  carriage  making  industry,  this  tendency 
has  been  marked.  So  extensively  has  machinery  been  in- 
troduced in  a  certain  wagon  factory  that,  to  quote  the 
exact  language  of  the  informant  of  the  present  writer,  "  the 
chief  duty  of  the  wagonmaker  in  that  factory  is  to  carry 
material  to-  and  from  the  machine.  Furthermore,  the  wages 
of  practically  every  employee  is  scarcely  above  that  of  the 
ordinary  laborer,  for  in  reality  subdivision  has  been  carried 
so  far  that  those  engaged  therein  perform  a  grade  of  work 
hardly  above  that  of  the  average  laborer."  Only  a  small 
number  of  carriage  and  wagon  factories  are  operated  on 
such  an  extensive  scale  as  the  plant  mentioned ;  and  the 
conditions  in  that  factory  are  not  typical  of  the  trade  in 
general.  In  smaller  factories  or  in  shops  where  the  latest 
improved  machinery  has  not  been  installed  those  engaged 
therein  are  required  to  perform  not  one  but  many  different 
operations,  and  many  skilled  workmen  are  found  in  such 
places.  But  the  Carriage  and  Wagon  Workers'  Union 
does  not  demand  any  special  qualifications  for  its  members 
other  than  that  the  applicant  must  be  engaged  at  the  trade 
and  be  of  good  moral  character.  Extensive  use  of  machin- 
ery and  minute  subdivision  of  labor  in  the  same  way  have 
greatly  simplified  the  work  of  the  textile  worker,  so  that 
the  labor  used  in  this  industry  at  the  present  time  is  sup- 
plied in  the  main  by  women  and  children,  who  are  not 
required  to  serve  an  apprenticeship. 

The  general  effect  of  the  subdivision  of  labor  and  the 
introduction  of  machinery  on  all  the  trades  of  this  group 


58  Apprenticeship  in  Ameridin  Tnuie  Unions.       [540 

has  been  to  lower  their  members  ahiiost  to  tlie  rank  of 
unskilled  workers.  Certainly,  the  number  of  highly  skilled 
workmen  engaged  in  these  industries  is  far  smaller  than 
formerly ;  and  in  consequence  these  trades  have  been  re- 
duced from  their  former  position  as  highly  skilled  crafts. 

(d)  Finally,  a  few  unions.  atViliated  with  the  American 
I'ederation  of  I^bor.  represent  professions  rather  than 
trades.  This  group  includes  the  Actors'  National  Protec- 
tive Union  and  the  American  Federation  of  Musicians. 
These  unions  maintain  no  apprenticeship  rules. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  foregoing,  that  a  majority  of  the 
unions  in  which  apprenticeship  is  not  a  prerequisite  to 
membership  are  composed  of  members  who  perform  un- 
skilled labor.  Ordinary  intelligence  and  physical  strength 
are  the  qualities  chicHy  required  from  these  workers.  Ap- 
prenticeship rules  have,  therefore,  never  been  enforced  in 
these  crafts. 

As  has  been  said,  about  fifty  imi<ins  i\n  not  maintain  a 
system  of  apprenticeship.  The  remaining  national  unions, 
that  is,  about  seventy  of  the  one  hundred  and  twenty 
affiliated  in  1904  with  the  American  h'edoration  of  LalK)r, 
with  a  membership  of  900,000,  together  with  some  half- 
dozen  imaffiliated  national  unions,  attcnij^.  more  or  less  suc- 
cessfully, to  enforce  apprenticeship  regulations." 

*•  Bakery  and  Confectionery  Workers'  International  Union. 

Rarbcrs'  Infcmational  Tnion  of  ,\mcrica.  Jounicynicn. 

I'.lacksniillis  and   Helpers.  International  BrolhcrIio<id  of. 

I'dilcr  Makers  and  Iron  .Shipbuilders  of  America,  Brotherhood  of. 

l!("'khinders.  Internatioiinl   Brotherhood  of. 

I'.rii  klayers  ami   Ma>-'>us'   liitrrn.itinnal   I'nifin  of  ,\n)crica. 

Broom  and  Whisk  Makers'  I'jiion,  International. 

I'.nishmakers'  International  I'nion. 

Carpenters  and  Joiners,  .'XnialRaniated  .Society  of 

Carpenters  and  Joiners.  I'niled  Brotherhood  of. 

Cement  Workers,  American  Brotherhood  of. 

Ceramic.  Mosaic  and  Encaustic  Tile  I^iycrs  and  Helpers'  Inter- 
national I'nion. 

Chainmakers'  National  Union  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Cigar  Makers'  International  Union  of  America. 

Cloth   Hat   and   Cap-Makers  of   North   .America.   I'nited. 

Coopers'  International  Union  of  North  America. 

Elastic  GorinR  Weavers'  Amalffamated  Association  of  the  United 
States  of  America. 

Electrical    Workers,    International    Brotherhood   of. 


54 1 ]    ii-^'tcnl  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Regulations.         59 
Of  these  seventy  trades,  only  nineteen  actually  succeed  in 


Elevator  Constructors,  International  Union  of. 

Flint  Glass  Workers'  Union,  American. 

l'\ir  Workers  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  International 
Association  of. 

Glass  Bottle  Blowers'  Association  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada. 

Glass  Workers'  International  Association  of  America,  Amalga- 
mated. 

Gold  Beaters'  National  Union  of  America,  United. 

Granite   Cutters'    International   Association   of   America. 

Hatters  of  North  America,  United. 

Horseshoers'  International  Union  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
Journeymen. 

Iron  Molders'  Union  of  North  America. 

Iron,  Steel  and  Tin  Workers  of  the  United  States,  National  Amal- 
gamated Association  of. 

Lace  Operatives  of  America,  Chartered  Society  of  the  Amal- 
gamated. 

Machine  Printers'  Beneficial  Association  of  the  United  States. 

Machinists,  International  Association  of. 

Marble  Workers,  International  Association  of. 

Metal  Mechanics,  International  Association  of  Allied. 

Metal  Polishers,  Buffers,  Platers,  Brass  Molders,  Brass  and 
Silver  Workers'  International  Union  of  North  America. 

Metal   Workers'   International   Union,   United. 

Painters,  Decorators  and  Paper  Hangers  of  America,  Brother- 
hood of. 

Pattern  Makers'  League  of  North  America. 

Paving  Cutters'  Union  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

Photo-Engravers'   Union   of   North   America,   International. 

Piano  and  Organ  Workers'  International  Union  of  America. 

Pilots'  Association,  International.'         . 

Plumbers,  Gas  Fitters,  Steam  Fitters'^nd  Steam  Fitters'  Helpers 
of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  United  Association  of  Journeymen. 

Potters,  National  Brotherhood  of  Operative.  ' 

Print  Cutters'  Association  of  America. 

Printing  Pressmen  and  Assistants'  Union  of  North  America, 
International. 

Saw   Smiths'   Union   of   North    America. 

Sheet  Metal  Workers'  International  Alliance,  Amalgamated. 

Shipwrights,  Joiners  and  Caulkers'  Union  of  America,  Inter- 
national. 

Slate  and  Tile  Roofers'  Union  of  America,  The  International. 

Steam,  Hot  Water,  and  Power  Pipe  Fitters  and  Helpers,  Inter- 
national Association  of. 

Steel  and  Copper  Plate  Printers'  Union  of  North  America,  The 
International. 

Stereotypers'  and  Electrotj^pers'  Union  of  North  America,  Inter- 
national. 

Stone  Cutters'  Association  of  North  America.  Journeymen. 

Table  Knife  Grinders'  National  Union  of  the  United  States. 

Tailors'  Union  of  America,  The  Journeymen. 

Tip  Printers,  International  Brotherhood  of. 


6o  Af*prei\ticeshif>  in  Amcricm   Trade  i'nions.       [54- 

cnforcinp  apprenticeship  as  a  prerequisite  to  membership.'" 
Certain  striking:  trade  characteristics  enable  these  unions 
to  enforce  their  apprenticeship  rules,  (a)  In  the  first  jilace. 
there  is  a  demand  in  these  trades  for  highly  trained  work- 
men. E.xcept  in  the  hat  and  lace  curtain  industries,  no 
inventions  have  revolutionized  the  methods  of  prmluction 
in  these  trades,  nor  has  the  work  been  subdivided  to  any 
large  extent. 

( /))  Secondly,  many  of  these  industries  are  highly  local- 
ized, and  the  localization  intensifies  and  perpetuates  the  cus- 
toms and  traditions  of  the  trade.  It  has  long  been  a  custom 
for  the  aj)prentice  boys  in  these  trades  to  serve  a  long  term ; 

Travelers'   Goods   and    Leather   Novelty   Workers'   International 
L'nion  of  America. 

T>pographia.  Deutsch-.-Xmcrikanischcn. 

Tyi)()(s'raphical   L'nion,    Intcrnation.il. 

rpholstcrcrs'  International   L'nion  of  North  America. 

Watch  Case  Knffravers'   International  Association  of  America. 

Window  Glass  Cutters'  LeaRue  of  North  .America. 

Window  Glass  Cutters*  and  l-"Iattcners'  Association  of  .America. 

Window  Cilass  Snappers. 

Wire   Drawers,  .American   Association  of. 

Wire  Weavers'  Benevolent  and   Protective  Association,  .American. 

Wood  Carvers'  .Association  of  North  America.  International. 

Wood,   Wire  and    .Metal   Lathers*   International   l'nion. 

Wood-Workers'    International    L'nion   of    .America.    .Amalgamated. 

^  Bricklayers'  and  Masons'  International  L'nion  of  America. 

Llastic  Goring  Weavers*  AmafJ^amated  Association  of  the  United 
States  of  .A'merica.  W" 

Flint  Glass   Workers*  L'nion,   American. 
Hilass  Bottle  Blowers*  Association  of  the  L'nitcd  .States  and  Canada. 

Gold  Beaters'  National  rnioii  of  .America,  l'nitcd. 

Granite  Cutters'  International  .Association  of  .Aincric.T. 

Hatters  of  North  .America,  l'nitcd. 

Iron  Moldcrs'  L'nion  of  North  America. 

Lace  Operatives  of  America.  Chartered  Society  of  the  .Amal- 
gamated. 

Mnrhic  Workers,  International  .Association  of. 

Metal  Polishers,  Buffers,  Platers,  Brass  Molders,  Brass  and 
Silver  Workers'  International  l'nion  of  North  .America. 

Pattern   Makers*  League  <>(  North  .America. 

Print  Ctitters'  Association  «if  .America. 

Saw  Smiths'  Union  of  North  .America. 

Sfereot\-pcrs'  and  Elect rotypcrs'  Union  <if  Nniih  \ni(rl<.i.  In- 
ternational. 

Typographia,  Deutsch-Amerikanischen. 

Window  fJlass  Cutters'  League  of  North  -America 

Window   fJlass   Cutlers'   and   Flatteners*   As.sociation  of   .America. 

Window  Glass  Snappers. 


543]     i^-vtent  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rej^itlations.         6i 

and  the  unions  will  not  dispense  with  this  practice,  unless 
they  are  forced  to  yield  by  trade  and  economic  conditions. 

(c)  In  the  third  place,  these  unions  are  exceedingly  well 
organized.  They  maintain  strong  locals  in  practically  every 
community  in  which  the  industry  is  carried  on,  and  have 
enrolled  as  members  a  large  majority  of  those  employed  at 
the  craft. 

The  small  number  of  artisans  employed  in  some  of  these 
trades  undoubtedly  makes  possible  the  more  rigorous  and 
efifective  enforcement  of  the  apprenticeship  rules.  The  sec- 
retary-treasurer of  the  pattern  makers  states :  "  Now  and 
then  a  man  may  work  from  another  trade  into  ours  ;  but 
the  number  is  so  small  that  it  is  practically  nil  and  does  not 
throughout  the  entire  country  and  Canada  average  ten  per 
year.  Graduates  from  the  trade  schools  also,  as  far  as  we 
can  learn,  go  into  the  shops  and  serve  a  regular  apprentice- 
ship. This,  in  a  great  measure,  is  due  to  the  fact  that  of 
all  the  trades,  pattern  making  combines  a  greater  amount 
of  intelligence  and  skill  than  is  required  in  any  other,  and, 
to  follow  it  successfully,  a  workman  must  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  all  kinds  of  molding  and  drafting.  The  num- 
ber of  apprentices  working  at  the  business  is  also  satisfac- 
tory to  the  organization,  as,  during  the  last  year,  but  one 
complaint  was  entered  by  a  local  as  to  any  shops  w^orking 
more  than  our  rules  called  for.  There  are,  though,  through- 
out the  country  some  few  shops  in  which  the  limit  of  appren- 
ticeship as  laid  down  in  the  rules  is  exceeded,  but  this  is  by 
tacit  arrangement  with  the  local  organizations,  as  the  num- 
ber of  journeymen  employed  in  these  instances  is  so  out  of 
proportion  to  the  average  shop  that  to  enforce  this  rule 
would  be  an  injustice.  These  shops  (five  in  number)  are, 
with  no  exception,  in  localities  organized  to  such  an  extent 
that,  were  it  found  advisable  to  limit  the  number  of  appren- 
tices, it  could  no  doubt  be  done.  I  can  state  for  our  organi- 
zation that  so  far  as  the  apprenticeship  system  is  concerned, 
both  as  relates  to  the  serving  of  same  and  number  con- 
cerned, it  is  satisfactorv." 


62  .■lf>f>rt'ntiit'shif>  in  .Inu'ridin  Trade  Utiiotis.       [544 

The  print  cutters,  the  elastic  poring  weavers  ami  the  Ger- 
man printers  are  established  in  only  a  very  small  number  of 
cities.  In  all  these  trades  the  union  controls  practically  the 
entire  membership  of  each  craft,  so  that  a  large  majority 
of  those  beginning  any  one  of  these  trades  at  the  i)resent 
time  really  serve  the  regular  union  apprenticeship  term.-" 

The  elastic  goring  weavers  and  the  German  printers  rep- 
resent trades  in  which  there  has  been  a  steady  decline  in  the 
demand  for  artisans,  resulting  in  a  gradual  decrease  in  the 
membership.  The  clastic  goring  weavers  have,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  industry  in  this  country,  succeeded  in 
organizing  practically  all  the  skilled  workmen  employed  at 
the  trade.  The  membership  has  never  been  large ;  for,  in 
1895.  when  the  trade  enjoyed  its  maximum  prosperity,  the 
secretary  of  the  union  reported  a  total  of  only  three  hundred 
and  fifty  members ;  and  he  stated  furthermore  that  only  a 
few  men  were  em|)loyed  in  the  industry  outside  of  the  union 
shops.  Members  of  this  trade  are  employed  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  clastic  web  used  in  congress  shoes.  With  the 
passing  of  that  style  of  footwear,  this  industry  experienced 
a  serious  and  steady  decline,  with  the  result  that  several 
factories  were  closed.  No  member  of  the  imion  has  been 
permitted  for  some  years  to  receive  an  apprentice  without 
the  consent  of  the  IfKal  union.  This  rule  has  exchulcd  prac- 
tically all  apprentices  from  the  trade. 

However,  the  mere  fact  that  only  a  small  number  are 
employed  at  a  trade  (hx-s  not  necessarily  insure  its  control 

••The  Lace  Curtain  OpcrativM.  organized  in  1892.  show  the 
power  of  a  small,  wetl-orj^anizcd  ttnion.  In  1803  it  included  eight 
locals  with  a  total  of  five  huuflred  and  sixty  mrmlicrs.  Hut  two 
non-union  shops  were  operated  at  that  dale,  and  they  furnished  em- 
ployment for  al)oiit  one  hundred  laro  makers.  Vpon  the  passage  of 
the  McKinley  tariff,  this  indtisiry  was  greatly  stimulated  and  the 
demand  for  workers  was  very  nuich  increased,  hut.  as  there  were  no 
unemployed  and  the  regidar  term  of  apprenticeship  required  of  all 
l)eginners  at  the  trade  was  three  years,  it  was  impossihlc  to  supply 
them  at  once  from  this  sotirce,  and  employers  were  compelled  to 
seek  skilled  workmen  elsewhere  The  secretary  stated  that  in  icx)3 
perhaps  two  thirfls  of  the  total  meml>ership  were  foreigtiers.  At  one 
time,  whrji  the  tniion  was  nnahle  to  supply  rnongli  workmen  to 
satisfy  the  legilimale  deman<ls  of  a  large  manufacturing  company 
of  Philadelphia,  the  firm  was  permitted  to  receive  twenty  additional 
apprentices.  Three  special  journeymen  were  detailed  to  instruct 
them. 


545]     Extent  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Regulations.         63 

to  the  union.  For  example,  watch  case  engraving,  a  hii^hly 
skilled  trade  at  which  bep^inners  are  required  to  serve  a  long 
apprenticeship  and  one  at  which  comparatively  few  can  find 
employment,  is  also  one  in  which  it  is  very  difficult  for  the 
union  to  exercise  a  rigid  supervision  over  the  entire  indus- 
try. Any  one  wishing  to  learn  the  trade  is  often  able  to 
find  an  opportunity  in  special  schools  or  in  the  small  non- 
union jewelry  shop,  over  which  the  union  cannot  exercise 
any  control.  The  secretary-treasurer  states  that  "  some  of 
the  manufacturers  have  been  in  the  habit  of  hiring  a  large 
number  of  boys  and  teaching  them  one  small  part  of  the 
engraving  trade.  The  consequence  is  that  there  are  a  large 
number  of  so-called  engravers  traveling  around  the  country 
who,  if  rated  according  to  their  ability,  are  nothing  more  or 
less  than  apprentices.  As  one  of  the  objects  of  this  associa- 
tion is  the  elevation  of  our  craft,  we  have  restricted  the  em- 
ployment of  apprentices,  and,  at  the  same  time,  have  made 
it  the  duty  of  the  shop  committee  to  see  that  the  members 
of  the  association  do  all  in  their  power  to  teach  the  appren- 
tices that  are  now  employed  in  their  respective  factories  the 
engraving  trade  in  full,  and  try  to  turn  out  full-fledged 
artists  at  the  expiration  of  the  five  years  which  they  have  to 
serve." 

The  inability  of  these  unions  to  control  completely  the 
number  of  apprentices  learning  the  trade  is  due  (a)  to  the 
presence  of  non-union  shops,  (6)  to  the  weakness  of  some 
local  unions. 

(a)  Although  the  unions  in  these  trades  embrace  a  very 
large  per  cent,  of  the  men  engaged  in  each  craft,  still,  in 
all  of  them,  some  non-union  shops  may  be  found.  In  such 
shops  the  number  of  apprentices  is  usually  large.''^ 

(h)  Some  local  unions  in  practically  every  trade  are  weak 
and  unable  to  enforce  apprenticeship  regulations.  These 
weaker  unions  always  vigorously  oppose  any  movement  on 

""  The  Bricklayers  and  Masons,  the  Granite  Cutters,  the  Saw 
Smiths  and  the  Hatters  are  strongly  organized,  but  much  work  is 
carried  on  in  each  trade  entirely  apart  from  tmion  influence.  The 
Saw  Smiths'  Union,  which  is  composed  of  a  very  small  number  of 
locals,  has  not  succeeded  in  organizing  one  of  the  largest  shops  in 
the  trade. 


64  .f/'/>rt'H/iVi'^/ii7>  in  American  Trade  i'ni<>tis.       [546 

the  part  of  the  employer  that  would  in  any  way  directly 
decrease  the  rate  of  waj^es  or  increase  the  length  of  the 
working  day.  but  they  are  not  always  equally  watchful 
and  energetic  to  enforce  the  rule  limiting  the  number  of 
apprentices. 

While  fifty  or  more  of  the  trades  attempting  to  maintain 
apprentice  ndes  are  only  |)artially  successful  in  their  design, 
many  strongly  organized  local  unions  in  each  of  these  indus- 
tries are  able  rigidly  to  enforce  apprenticeship  regulations 
within  their  own  jurisdiction.  This  is  well  illustrated  by 
locals  in  the  buiUling  trades,  the  metal  polishers,  the  machin- 
ists and  the  cigar  makers.  In  each  of  these  trades,  as  of 
all  others  in  the  same  class.  |)crhaps  less  than  one  half  of 
those  working  as  journeymen  have  served  the  prescribed 
apprenticeship  term  in  union  shops ;  but.  in  many  strong 
locals,  none  are  permitted  to  learn  except  imder  the  rules 
of  the  imion. 

.\s  previously  noted,  a  few  inclustries  have  been  subdivided 
to  such  an  extent  that  apprenticeship  regulations  have  been 
dispensed  with ;  and  other  trades,  because  of  new  inventions 
and  minute  subdivision  of  lal)or.  are  rajiidly  a|)proaching 
this  condition.  In  tracing  the  development  in  the  methods 
of  production  and  noting  the  reflex  influence  of  these 
changes  upon  the  apprenticeship  rules,  three  distinct  stages 
arc  revealcfl. 

(a)  During  the  early  period,  one  or  at  the  most  a  few 
journeymen,  who  had  midergone  a  long  apprenticeship  and 
posscs.sed  detailed  knowledge  of  the  trade,  worked  by  hand 
with  a  few  simple  tf>ols  and  completed  the  entire  article. 
The  process  of  production  necessarily  proreede<l  slowly,  and 
the  output  was  comparatively  small  ;ind  could  not  be  in- 
creased to  any  great  extent  until  more  journeymen  were 
traincfl  and  eqtiipped  with  tools. 

(b)  With  the  improvement  of  the  instnnnents  of  produc- 
tion, so  that  steam  or  electrical  power  could  be  utilized  in 
operating  them,  the  employer  found  it  more  profitable  to 
apportion  the  work  among  several  journeymen  rather  than 
to  have  each  artisan  make  the  cotnpleted  product.     The  old 


547]     i^-'^'tcHt  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Regulations.         65 

apprenticeship  rules  were  continued  as  long  as  possible ;  but, 
since  many  refused  to  spend  several  years  in  learning  the 
entire  trade,  when  in  actual  service  they  would  be  required 
to  perform  only  a  portion  of  it,  the  union  soon  experienced 
great  difficulty  in  maintaining  its  rules.  The  term  of  ser- 
vice was  rarely  if  ever  shortened  by  the  union.  The  result 
has  been  that  neither  party  greatly  respected  the  rules  gov- 
erning apprentices ;  and,  as  they  could  not  be  strictly  en- 
forced, many  poorly  trained  journeymen  gained  entrance 
into  the  trade. 

(c)  The  third  stage,  attained  as  yet  by  only  a  few  trades, 
is  reached  when  the  subdivision  of  labor  has  been  carried  so 
far  that  skilled  labor  is  largely  supplanted  by  unskilled  labor, 
in  some  cases  by  women  and  children. 

Great  difficulty  is  encountered  in  regulating  apprenticeship 
for  trades  in  which  both  the  old  and  the  newer  methods  of 
production  are  employed.  For  example,  in  carpentry  the 
w^ork  performed  ranges  from  that  done  by  "  hatchet  and 
saw  "  workmen  to  the  service  rendered  by  the  highly  skilled 
artisan  engaged  upon  the  finest  and  most  difficult  work. 
Many  years  of  training,  together  with  more  than  ordinary 
native  ability,  are  requisites  for  those  who  succeed  at  the 
latter  branch  of  the  work.  The  "  hatchet  and  saw  "  car- 
penter picks  up  his  trade  in  a  short  while. 

At  the  present  time  a  large  majority  of  the  trades  wdiich 
attempt  with  difficulty  the  enforcement  of  apprenticeship 
rules  are  passing  through  the  second  stage,  some  beginning 
it,  others  nearing  the  end,  according  to  the  extent  and  per- 
fection of  the  machinery  used.  In  still  others,  notably  in 
the  boot  and  shoe  industry,  shops  may  be  found  in  which  the 
old  hand-methods  are  used  side  by  side  with  large  factories 
in  which  the  latest  improved  machinery  has  been  installed. 

This  study  of  the  present  condition  of  the  apprenticeship 
regulations  is  not  based  simply  upon  the  trades  in  which  a 
very  large  percentage  of  the  journeymen  have  completed 
their  apprenticeship  term  in  the  prescribed  manner,  but  also 
upon  the  seventy  different  trades  in  which  the  union  at- 
tempts, whether  successfully  or  not,  to  enforce  rigid  rules 
governing  apprenticeship. 


CHAPTF.R    H. 

Apprenticeship  Regulation  and  its  Purpose. 

Uniformity  of  Apprentice  Regulation. — Trade-union  ap- 
prenticeship regulations  are  formulated  in  some  cases  by  the 
local  branches ;  in  others,  by  the  national  unions.  In  the 
building  trades  and  among  the  jewelry  workers  and  the  cigar 
makers,  for  example,  apprenticeship  regidation  is  a  local 
matter.  Several  reasons  for  this  policy,  especially  in  con- 
nection with  the  building  trades,  may  be  noted. 

(a)  In  the  first  place,  the  principal  crafts  represented  have 
retained  much  of  the  traditional  idea  of  a  trade.  Each 
workman  carries  his  tools  with  him  as  he  journeys  from 
place  to  place.  In  the  older  trades,  such  as  carpentry,  brick- 
laying, stone-cutting  and  lathing,  many  customs  in  vogue 
before  the  formation  of  unions  have  been  preserved,  and  are 
still  practiced."  Again,  although  machinery  or  improved 
tools  have  been  introduced  in  practically  all  these  trades  and 
subdivision  of  work  has  made  rapid  progress  in  some  of 
them,  notably  carpentry,  subdivision  of  lalxir  has  not  reached 
the  stage  wherein  the  all-round  workman  is  not  needed. 
Both  employer  and  union  prefer  the  fully  trained  mechanic 
to  the  specialist.  Neither  the  introduction  of  machinery  nor 
sub<livision  of  labor  has  caused  any  reduction  in  the  nom- 
inal term  of  apprenticeship.  Moreover,  the  uniform  con- 
ditions found  in  other  crafts.  iXwc  largely  to  competition  in 
the  sale  of  the  article  produced,  do  not  exist  throughout 

"  A  peculiar  practice  of  this  character  still  survives  among  the 
p.ipcr  hangers  in  the  city  of  Cleveland.  Kach  journeyman  is  re- 
quired to  provifle  himself  with  a  small  hand-cart,  in  which  he 
pushes  his  trK)ls  and  material  from  place  to  place  over  the  city, 
in  some  cases  this  becomes  a  heavy  burden,  since  the  workmen  may 
be  cnmprllrd  to  walk  ten  or  twelve  miles  in  a  single  day.  Old 
members  arc  frequently  allowed  a  helper,  who  pushes  the  cart  from 
one  job  to  another.  The  entire  outfit  for  each  journeyman  costs 
about  twenty-five  dollars. 

66 


549]       Apprenticeship  Regulation  and  its  Purpose.  67 

these  trades ;  and,  consequently,  conditions  in  one  commu- 
nity do  not  materially  affect  those  in  another.  A  distinction 
is,  however,  to  be  noted  in  these  trades  between  the  inside 
workman  or  shopman  and  the  outside  workman.  The  for- 
mer has  a  fixed  place  of  labor.  The  material  comes  to  him 
in  the  rough,  and  is  taken  away  as  a  finished  product,  ready 
for  the  market.  In  this  branch  of  the  industry  competition 
in  the  article  manufactured  may  to  some  extent  regulate  and 
make  uniform  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  produced ; 
although,  even  here,  competition  is  often  prevented  or  seri- 
ously hampered  by  the  rules  of  the  international  union. '^ 
On  the  other  hand,  the  outside  workman  goes  wherever  em- 
ployment is  to  be  found,  but  the  product  of  his  labor  is  not 
shipped.  In  some  cases  both  classes  exist  in  the  same  trade, 
notably  in  carpentry,  stone-cutting  and  structural  iron  work. 
Mechanics  pass  easily  from  one  class  to  the  other,  and  have 
the  same  apprenticeship  rules. 

(b)  Again,  many  of  these  trades  are  characterized  by 
great  irregularity  of  employment,  resulting  from  the  nature 
-of  the  work  done,  variations  in  weather  and  changes  of 
season.  The  journeyman  is  certain  of  a  job  only  until  the 
one  upon  which  he  is  engaged  is  completed.  At  least  a  day 
or  two  must  intervene  between  jobs,  during  which  time  no 
wages  are  received.  Employment  for  seven  or  eight  months 
of  the  year  is  a  conservative  estimate  of  the  actual  working 
time  of  the  average  journeyman  in  such  industries.  To  this 
should  be  added  the  fact  that,  in  these  trades,  there  is  a  great 
need  for  quick,  effective  execution  of  a  new  policy  or  for 
the  immediate  enforcement  of  a  shop  rule.  A  short  delay, 
and  the  particular  job  may  be  completed.^^ 

^'The  Journej-men  Stone  Cutters'  Association  will  not  permit  the 
transportation  of  cut  stone  from  one  place  to  another  unless  the 
wages  and  hours  are  equal,  except  in  cases  where  the  exchange 
between  different  branches  is  mutualh'  agreed  upon.  More  than 
this,  provision  is  made  that  planer  work  is  not  to  be  shipped  to 
the  cities  where  the  unions  have  succeeded  in  preventing  the  intro- 
duction of  machinerv.  See  Constitution  (Washington,  1900), 
Article  XII. 

"  So  urgent  has  been  the  need  in  this  regard  that  some  unions 
have  given  the  business  agent  power  to  call  a  strike.  This  policy 
in  turn  has  led  to  flagrant  abuses,  and  the  authority  has  in  some 
cases  been  transferred  to  a  grievance  committee. 


68  .■i/>/»rt'///;Vt'j-/i/7'  in  Amcricitn  Trade  Unions.       [550 

The  two  conditions  last  noted  arc  rcsj)onsiblc  f«)r  the  ab- 
sence of  nniformity  in  this  j^ronp  of  trades.  Each  local 
union  has  its  own  difticulties  to  be  adjusted  according  to 
local  circumstances.  Shop  rules  under  such  conditions  can, 
therefore,  best  meet  actual  needs  where  determined  by  the 
local  unions ;  and  the  apprenticeship  rejj^ulations  are  so 
framed.  The  internatic^ial  unions  make  provision  for  ap- 
prenticeship and  submit  general  recommendations  in  regard 
thereto,  but  all  details  arc  adjusted  by  the  local  unions  with 
reference  to  local  conditions.''* 

The  characteristics  of  the  trades  in  which  the  ai)prentioe- 
ship  rules  are  formulated  by  the  international  union  are  well 
illustrated  by  the  window  glass  workers,  iron  molders,  glass 
bottle  blowers,  stove  luounters  and  steel  range  workers. 

(a)  In  the  first  place,  the  factories  in  these  trades  are 
usually  large  and  localized.  The  number  of  unions  is  com- 
paratively small,  and,  apart  from  these  trade  centers,  it  is 
practically  impossible  for  a  beginner  to  learn  the  trade,  as 
little  if  any  opportunity  is  afforded  one  to  "  pick  it  up." 
Moreover,  the  article  produced  is  placed  upon  the  general 
market,  and  thus  the  mamifacturers  arc  in  direct  competi- 
tion. This  makes  it  necessary  to  allow  each  employer  the 
same  number  of  apprentices,  and  uniformity  can  be  best 
secured  only  when  the  international  union  assumes  control 
of  apprenticeship  regulations. 

"An  cxcq)tion  to  this  statement  is  found  in  tin-  .ipprenlicc  rules  of 
the  Journeymen  Stone  Cutlers'  Association.  While  the  locals  arc 
permitted  to  rcffi'late  the  ninnl)er  of  stone  cutter  apprentices,  they 
may  not  k'^  heyond  certain  limits  prescribed  hy  the  .'\ssociation. 
Kxplanation  of  this  practice  is  found  in  tlie  fact  tliat  most  stone 
crtlers  are  shopmen,  and  the  product  of  tlu-ir  Ial)or  is  to  some  extent 
in  competition  with  tliat  of  other  shops.  Tliis  competition  makes 
necessary  imiform  conditions  of  production  if  all  contractors  arc  to 
have  a  fair  cliance. 

An  apparent  instance  of  national  repulation  is  foimcl  in  the  con- 
stitution of  the  I'nited  Associati(»n  of  joiirneymen  IMumhers.  which 
provides  that  "  where  there  is  no  agreement  relative  t(»  ap|)renticcs, 
and  a  new  aRrcement  is  hciuR  framed,  the  employment  of  helpers 
and  apprentices  shall  he  entirely  pr»>hil)ited."  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
locals  in  this  trade  maintain  whatever  ratio  they  see  fit  or  are  able 
to  secure.  An  excessive  use  of  helj)crs  in  the  past  has  resulted  in  a 
disproportionate  number  of  journeymen  fmdinR  their  way  into  the 
trade,  and  the  law  of  the  international  unirm  abolishing  apprentices 
and  helpers  was  an  cfTort  to  reduce  the  trade  to  normal  conditions. 


55 1]      Apprenticeship  Regulation  and  its  Purpose.  69 

(b)  Again,  those  national  unions  whose  members  are  all 
of  the  same  trade  have  less  difificiilty  in  formulating  national 
apprenticeship  rules.  It  is  the  plan  of  the  United  Brewery 
Workmen  to  organize  locals,  including  engineers,  firemen, 
brewers,  maltsters,  bottlers,  coopers  and  team  drivers,  into 
one  international  union,  but  uniform  apprenticeship  rules 
could  not  be  enforced  by  this  national  organization.  At  least 
one  of  the  trades  included  in  the  United  Brewery  Workmen, 
namely,  the  coopers,  represents  highly  skilled  labor,  main- 
tains a  strong  international  union,  to  which  most  workmen 
at  the  trade  belong,  and  controls  its  own  apprenticeship  rules. 
The  International  Association  of  Car  Workers,  which  in- 
cludes persons  employed  as  car  builders,  truck  builders,  car 
repairers,  car  painters,  car  inspectors,  car  oilers,  air-brake 
inspectors,  air-brakemen,  car  cleaners,  roundhouse  employ- 
ees, some  of  which  are  skilled  workmen,  cannot  because  of 
the  diversity  of  employment  maintain  uniform  rules  for 
beginners.^" 

The  apprenticeship  regulations  of  four  trades  represented 
in  the  International  Typographical  Union,  namely,  the  Eng- 
lish compositors,  the  German  compositors,  the  stereotypers 
and  electrotypers,  and  the  photo-engravers  have  their  ap- 
prenticeship rules  at  least  in  part  determined  by  the  Inter- 
national Typographical  Union,  but  these  regulations  do  not 
apply  to  the  three  remaining  unions,  that  is,  the  typefounders, 
the  mailers  and  the  newspaper  writers. 

The  International  Association  of  Machinists  attempts  to 
maintain  uniform  international  apprenticeship  regulations. 
"  One  apprentice  is  allowed  to  each  shop,  irrespective  of  the 
number  of  machinists  employed,  and  one  to  every  five  ma- 
chinists thereafter ;  and  no  boy  shall  begin  to  learn  the  trade 
of  machinist  until  he  is  sixteen  years  old,  nor  after  he  is 

^  Certain  kindred  or  allied  trades,  for  example,  the  printing  trades, 
the  glass  trades,  the  textile,  clothing  and  allied  trades,  the  building 
trades,  the  metal  and  machinery-  trades,  the  wood  working  and  allied 
trades  work  together  for  purposes  of  more  efficient  organization 
and  greater  effectiveness  of  administration,  but  the  differences  within 
each  group  preclude  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  these  bodies  to 
establish  a  uniform  apprenticeship  regulation. 


70  Apprcnticcshif'  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [552 

twcntN  -one  years  of  age."  Furthennore,  he  must  serve  four 
years  at  the  trade  ;  but  it  is  a  well-known  fact  to  all  mem- 
bers of  the  craft  that  the  rule  is  hardly  more  than  the  re- 
corded exjiressidu  of  ojiinion  of  what  should  be  the  rule. 
Great  diversity  of  practice  exists  aiuongf  the  local  unions. 
The  conditions  under  which  this  industry  luust  be  carried 
on  are,  in  some  respects,  not  luilike  those  in  the  building 
trades.  In  the  first  place,  hx'al  unions  are  scattered  through- 
out the  entire  country  in  highly  ditTerent  environments. 
Again,  the  ditTerent  grades  of  work  which  a  luachinist  is 
called  upon  to  perform  range  from  repair  work,  which  does 
not  usually  ref|uire  a  high  gra«le  of  skill,  to  the  work  per- 
formed by  those  engaged  in  the  construction  of  the  most 
complicated  machines  and  delicate  instruments. 

The  difficulties  encountered  in  requiring  a  uniform  term 
of  apprenticeship  for  all  those  desiring  to  enter  a  trade  are 
plainly  luanifest  in  the  iron  molding  trade.  The  skill  of  the 
employees  varies  greatly,  ranging  from  that  required  in 
molding  plain  pieces  to  the  skill  necessary  for  the  construc- 
tion of  elalx)rate  and  complicated  machinery.  The  employ- 
ers in  the  National  Founders'  .\ss<Kiation  use  unskilled  labor 
on  many  kinds  of  work.  Hut  the  union  has  opposed  this  on 
the  ground  that  if  unskilled  !al)orers  are  allowed  to  perform 
even  a  few  of  the  luinor  processes  the  tejulency  will  be  for 
an  ever-increasing  portion  of  the  work  of  the  trade  to  gravi- 
tate to  these  poorly  equipped  workmen. 

.\ttempts  have  been  juade  with  success  in  some  trades  to 
classify  different  parts  of  the  process  of  manufacture  accord- 
ing to  the  degree  of  skill  reqiiired.  The  use  of  nuich  un- 
skilled labor  is  thus  permitted.  In  luost  cases,  the  unions 
seek  to  enforce  their  apprenticeshi|)  regulations  upon  all 
prospective  journeymen. 

.Apart  froiu  the  economic  characteristics  of  the  trades  and 
the  governmental  peculiarities  f)f  the  unions,  custom  has 
been  a  factor  in  determining  whether  the  national  or  the 
local  union  shall  regulate  apprenticeship.  When  certain 
policies  have  been  followed  for  years,  they  are  not  readily 
changed,  even  when  conditions  change. 


553]       Apprenticeship  Regulation  and  its  Purpose.  71 

Purposes  of  Apprenticeship  Rules. — Whether  apprentice- 
ship rules  are  formulated  by  the  locals  or  by  the  inter- 
national unions,  their  purposes  are  identical.  Unionism 
stands  primarily  for  a  shorter  work  day,  an  increased  wage, 
and  more  favorable  conditions  of  employment.  Apprentice- 
ship regulation  constitutes  a  part  of  the  machinery  used  to 
attain  these  ends.  It  has  been  asserted  that  "  the  chief 
motive  which  influences  the  unions  in  shaping  their  appren- 
ticeship rules  is  the  desire  to  maintain  their  wages  by  dimin- 
ishing competition  within  the  trades.  The  only  other 
motive,  which  is  not  included  within  this  formula,  is  the 
desire,  for  reasons  which  may  be  classed  as  artistic,  to 
prevent  a  lowering  of  the  standard  of  skill.  This  feeling 
cannot  be  supposed  to  exert  more  than  a  minor  influence 
upon  actual  policies. "^^  This  statement  is  true  in  part  only. 
While  the  individual  member,  busy  at  his  daily  labors  and 
with  little,  if  any  time  for  considering  the  larger  union 
policies,  may  consider  only  the  restrictive  side  of  appren- 
ticeship, the  more  intelligent  and  broad  minded  leaders  lay 
stress  on  the  fact  that  the  maintenance  of  high  wages  is 
assured  not  only  by  diminishing  competition,  but  rather  by 
maintaining  a  high  standard  of  skill  among  the  members. 
It  is  claimed  that,  were  the  unions  able  to  compel  every 
workman  going  to  the  trade  to  conform  strictly  to  the 
apprenticeship  rules  as  to  training,  it  would  be  unnecessary 
to  limit  the  number  of  apprentices."^ 

The  position  of  many  of  the  union  leaders  is  expressed 
by  the  secretary  of  the  Bricklayers  and  Masons'  Interna- 
tional Union,  who  states  that  "  our  only  aim  and  object  is 
to  establish,  not  only  by  our  own  laws,  but  by  enactments 
of  the  legislatures  of  the  different  states,  a  proper  regula- 

"  Report  of  the  Industrial  Commission,  Washington,  1901,  Vol. 
17.  p.  53. 

^  It  frequently  happens  that,  in  shops  where  all  parties  observe 
strictly  the  law  regarding  beginners,  the  full  quota  of  apprentices 
allowed  is  not  always  desired.  The  ratio  of  apprentices  to  journey- 
men permitted  by  the  United  Hatters  of  North  America  (Consti- 
tution, 1903,  Art.  XVI)  is  one  to  ten,  but  the  published  list  (Journal 
of  the  United  Hatters  of  North  America,  July  i,  1899,  p.  11)  of 
apprentices  and  journeymen  actually  in  service  among  the  different 
unions  reveals  a  ratio  varying  from  one  to  eight  to  one  to  thirty-five. 


72  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [5  54 

tion  poverninp  the  cmployinctit  of  apprentices,  so  that  their 
proficiency,  when  they  have  rendered  tlie  required  years 
of  service,  provided  in  iheir  hond  of  indenture,  will  be  of 
the  best,  and  thus  they  will  be  a  credit  to  their  vocations. 
Orj::fanized  labor  seeks  to  turn  out  the  highly  skilled  me- 
chanics. \Vc  want  the  boy  to  be  taught  not  only  the 
common  rudiments  of  the  trade  but  also  the  higher  orders. 
.  .  .  We  do  not  seek,  however,  to  prohibit  the  taking  on  of 
apprentices,  .  .  .  What  we  do  seek,  however,  is  to  provide 
regulations  governing  their  employment,  and,  as  to  restric- 
tion in  number,  we  only  intended  it  in  the  sense  that  will 
permit  and  provide  for  proper  care  being  exercised  in  their 
welfare  and  advancement,  and  to  the  end  that  the  l)oy 
may  be  taken  care  of  more  than  seven  months  in  the  year."^" 

A  high  general  standard  of  workmanship  is  desirable  in 
any  trade  union  (a)  to  the  members  as  individuals,  {b)  to 
the  union  as  a  whole  on  account  of  the  relation  of  such  a 
standard  to  collective  bargaining. 

{a)  The  original  and  primary  purpose  of  the  apprenticeship 
system,  whether  maintained  under  the  indenture,  established 
by  custom,  or  enforce<l  by  the  early  trade  unions,  was  to 
provide  opportunities  for  boys  to  learn  a  trade,  thcrebv 
ensuring  an  adequate  supply  of  well  trained  mechanics  for 
each  trafle.  The  journeyman  was.  during  the  early  period, 
an  exceedingly  important  person  in  his  immediate  vicinity. 
Oftentimes,  the  community  flepended  ui>on  his  labor  for  the 
particular  article  of  his  craft,  while  his  aliility  as  a  skilled 
meclianic  was  highly  respected,  lie  manifested  great  pride 
in  the  excellence  of  his  workmanship.  On  the  other  hand. 
he  detested  the  tmskilled  workman  of  his  craft,  whose  acti\  ;- 
tics  tended  to  lower  the  trade  statulards  of  efficiency. 

Pride  in  high-class  workmanship  still  characterizes  the 
skillerl  jrturneyman.  Mechanics  take  a  deep  interest  in  the 
general  standard  of  skill  for  the  entire  trade  as  well  as 
pride  in  their  own  individual  ability.     The  feeling  against 

"Tliirty-niiith  Annii.il  Report  of  ilic  Prriidrnt  antl  .Scrrctary  of 
the  nricklayers  and  Ma.sons'  International  Union,  Indianapolis.  1904. 
pp  4 1 4-4 1. S 


555]       Apprenticeship  Regulation  and  its  Purpose.  73 

the  incompetent  workman  goes  to  the  extent  of  seeking  to 
exclude  him  from  the  organization. 

(b)  A  prime  difficulty  in  collective  bargaining  lies  in  the 
necessity,  inherent  in  all  bargaining,  of  agreeing  upon  a 
measure.  If  the  workers  in  a  trade  possessed  approxi- 
mately equal  ability,  a  common  wage  scale  for  that  trade 
could  more  easily  be  agreed  upon.  But  the  presence  of  a 
large  number  of  comparatively  unskilled  workmen  offers 
serious  complications.  The  better  workrnen  are  inclined  to 
maintain  a  high  standard,  while  the  incompetence  of  the 
inferior  workman  tends  to  lower  the  scale.  Since  the  union 
rate  is  a  minimum,  it  is  easy  for  the  rapid,  well-trained 
workman  to  secure  the  union  rate ;  but  the  less  competent 
journeyman  can  often  secure  that  rate  only  wnth  difficulty. 
Even  the  stronger  unions  hesitate  to  raise  the  union  rate 
unduly,  lest  those  unable  to  command  it  become,  as  non- 
union workmen,  a  powerful  opposing  force. 

One  way  of  solving  the  problem  is  to  reduce  these  in- 
equalities between  individual  workmen.  Raising  or  lower- 
ing the  rate  does  not  lessen  the  difficulty  as  long  as  work- 
men of  marked  difference  in  skill  and  dexterity  are  found 
among  members  of  the  same  trade.  To  secure  a  force  of 
workmen  of  fairly  uniform  ability  is  one  purpose  of  the 
apprenticeship  regulations.  The  ideal  conditions  for  a  per- 
fectly just  standard  rate,  that  is,  exactly  equal  ability  on  the 
part  of  each  workman,  cannot  be  realized ;  but  wide  differ- 
ences as  to  skill  among  men  of  the  same  trade  may  be 
greatly  reduced.  Well-devised  and  rigidly  enforced  ap- 
prenticeship rules  thus  become  in  many  trades  the  pre- 
requisite of  a  just  standard  rate. 

The  restrictive  side  of  apprenticeship  rules  is  prominent 
in  certain  unions.  The  secretary  of  the  St.  Louis  local 
of  the  International  Brotherhood  of  Electrical  Workers 
had  no  hesitation  in  declaring  to  the  writer  that  it  was  the 
policy  of  his  union  to  exclude  all  but  the  best  grade  of 
workmen.  This  was  accomplished  by  maintaining  rigid 
apprenticeship  rules,  high  initiation  fees  and  thorough  en- 


74  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [556 

trance  cxaniinatiotis.  A  similar  policy  of  restriction  has 
been  followed  in  recent  years  by  the  plumbers.  Highly 
skilled  lalior  is  necessary  to  perform  successfully  the  hij^hest 
j;radcs  of  work  in  this  trade.  But  many  plumbers  are 
engaged  entirely  on  repair  work,  which  does  not  require 
much  training.  Plumbers  working  on  repair  work  were 
taken  into  the  union.  If  a  long  apprenticeship  had  been 
required,  these  workmen  for  the  most  part  could  not  have 
been  members.*"  Moreover,  each  journeyman  was  per- 
mitted to  engage  a  helper  at  a  wage  mucii  smaller  than 
his  own.  The  helpers,  after  being  trained  a  year  or  so, 
frequently  became  journeymen.  The  presence  of  such  a 
large  number  of  half-trained  workmen  in  the  union  threat- 
ened to  cause  a  great  reduction  in  wages.  The  Interna- 
tional Union,  under  these  circumstances,  took  vigorous 
steps  to  reduce  the  number  of  journeymen  by  restricting 
the  number  of  apprentices  and  helpers.  The  constitution 
requires  that  "  where  there  is  no  established  agreement  rela- 
tive to  apprentices,  or  where  the  agreement  has  expired,  and 
a  new  agreement  is  being  framed,  helpers  and  apprentices 
shall  be  entirely  abolished."** 

•*  Inasnnich  as  a  very  small  amount  of  capital  was  required  to 
open  a  shop,  a  jotirncymnn  plumber  could  easily  set  up  in  business 
for  himself.  Not  only  the  workmen  but  their  employers  also  suffered 
from  the  lax  system  of  apprentice  regulation. 

"  Constitution  and  Rules  of  Order  of  the  United  Association  of 
Journeymen  Plumbers,  etc.   (n.  p.]    190J,  .\rticlc  XIX.  sec.  5. 


CHAPTER   III. 

Charactkr  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations. 

Entrance  upo>i  Apprenticeship. — Several  influences  operate 
together  to  keep  each  trade  suppHed  with  apprentices.  The 
natural  tastes  and  desires  of  the  boy  and  the  influence  of 
parents  and  friends  are  more  or  less  indefinite  and  intangible, 
but  other  influences  may  be  noted  with  a  greater  degree 
of  exactness : 

(a)  As  between  the  employer  and  the  union,  it  is  the 
former  who  takes  the  initiative  and  induces  boys  to  enter 
the  trade. 

(b)  In  the  constitutions  of  some  of  the  older  organiza- 
tions the  right  of  the  journeyman  to  teach  the  trade  to  his 
son  or  to  some  member  of  his  family  is  explicitly  recog- 
nized. Thus,  in  the  constitution  of  the  Stone  Cutters' 
Union,  provision  is  made  that,  while  any  local  union  may 
regulate  the  number  of  apprentices  in  each  yard  within  its 
jurisdiction,  stone  cutters'  sons  in  every  case  must  have  the 
preference.  Similarly,  in  the  apprenticeship  rules  adopted 
by  the  carpenters'  union  of  Tacoma,  Washington,  it  is 
specifically  stated  that  "  nothing  in  this  article  shall  be  con- 
strued to  prevent  any  minor  son  working  with  his  father, 
and  under  his  instructions,  said  father  being  a  member  of 
this  union."*-  The  lathers  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  go  as  far  as 
to  provide  that  "  no  apprentice  shall  be  admitted  to  work 
in  any  shop  unless  he  is  the  son  of  a  member  of  this  union, 
in  good  standing  and  above  sixteen  years  of  age."*^  The 
Window  Glass  Workers,  restricting  the  number  of  appren- 
tices for  the  blast  of  1902,  still  permitted  "  a  father  to  take 

"  Section  13  of  apprenticeship  rules,  adopted  by  Tacoma  unions; 
see  The  Carpenter,  September,  1902,  p.  4. 

*'  By-laws  and  Working  Rules  of  the  Wood,  Wire  and  Metal 
Lathers'  International  Union,  Local  No.  2  of  Cleveland,  Ohio,  re- 
vised 1903.     (Cleveland,  1903.)     Art.  XIII,  sec.  i. 

75 


76  Apprenticeship  in  .Imericiin  Trade  Unions.       [558 

his  son  or  a  brother  to  take  his  brother,  or  a  member  to  take 
the  son  or  brother  of  some  other  member  of  the  Window 
Glass  Workers'  Association."** 

The  ri^ht  of  the  father  to  train  his  son  in  his  own  trade 
is  a  custom  of  lonjj  standing,  and  has  been  strong  in  piece 
work  trades ;  but.  at  the  present  time,  few  unions  permit 
journeymen  to  take  their  sons  as  apprentices.  The  Window 
Glass  Workers  limit  the  right  by  a  regulation  that  "  no 
apprentice  shall  be  granted  to  any  one  who  has  not  been 
a  member  of  the  .Association   for  three  years."** 

The  formal  application  for  apprenticeship,  where  re- 
quired, is  much  the  same  in  all  trades.  Usually,  the  Ixty 
and.  in  some  cases,  the  employer  or  journeyman  to  whom 
he  is  apprenticed  must  ap|)ear  before  the  local  union. 
Typical  regulations  in  this  regard  are  those  of  the  Journey- 
men Stone  Cutters'  Association,  which  provide  that  "  each 
apprentice,  upon  going  to  the  trade,  shall  go  before  the 
branch  under  which  he  is  to  serve  his  time,  at  the  first 
regular  meeting,  giving  his  name,  age  and  place  of  resi- 
dence, the  name  of  the  firm  he  is  apprenticed  to :  and.  if 
same  is  considered  satisfactory,  he  shall  be  taken  under  the 
protection  of  said  branch,  and  the  recording  secretary  shall 
keep  a  record  of  the  name  in  the  lx>ok  kept  for  that  purpose, 
and  a  copy  of  the  record  shall  be  sent  to  the  general  office 
to  be  kept  on  file."*"  The  International  Broom  and  Whisk 
Makers'  Union  requires   that  "  any  organized  shop  dc-^ir- 

**  By-laws  of  the  Window  Gla.ss  Workers'  Association  of  America, 
PittsbufK.  1902,  Art.  i,  sec.  2. 

"The  rcqiiircnirnt  of  ,'\mcrican  citizenship,  so  riffitlly  enforced  in 
the  Rlass   inrhistrics.   is  doubtless  due  to  the   strong  competition   of 
American  ^f>rn\s  with  those  ni.ncle  in   foreign  countries,  and   also  to 
thf  immigration  of  foreign  workmen.     However,  the  high  protective 
tariff  on  winrlow  Klass,  cxrej)!  for  stn.ill  si/cs.  .md  the  lar^c  initiation 
frt    Irvicfl   upon   foreiffiiers.  prevent   rffcctive  competition    from   that 
Thns,  they  provifle  that  "no  blower,  Rathcrrr,  (laitener  or 
shall  l>e  eHKil)le  to  become  a  mrmlKr  of  tlie   Wintlow  Glas5 
Workers'  Association  of  America  who  has  not  been  in  this  country 
for  a  period  of  five  years.  heRinninc  July  9,  \qo2,  and  a  fnll-fledRed 
•1  of  the  I'nited  Stales.     That   the  initiation  fee  shall  be  fixed 
■^  Slim  of  five  htmdred  dollars"     I'.y-laws.  p.  4,  sec.   14. 
"  ronstittuion  of  Journeymen  Stone  Cutters'   .Association   (Wash- 
ington, 1900),  Art.  V,  sec.  2. 


5  59]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  77 

ing  an  apprentice  shall  make  application  to  the  interna- 
tional executive  board  through  the  local  union  on  blanks 
furnished  by  the  international  secretary  for  the  purpose. 
The  general  executive  board  shall  grant  the  permission  in 
accordance  with  the  trade  rules  of  the  district  in  which 
the  factory  is  located. "■*'  The  Bookbinders'  Union  requires 
that  "  a  certificate  of  apprenticeship  shall  be  furnished  by 
the  central  secretary  to  be  issued  by  locals  to  apprentices 
in  the  beginning  of  their  term,  and  presented  by  them  to  the 
union  when  application  is  made  for  admission  as  a  journey- 
man."*^ The  requirement  of  the  Hat  Finishers  is  very 
stringent :  "  All  boys,  before  being  allowed  to  go  to  work, 
must  appear  in  person  at  a  meeting  of  the  board  of  officers 
consisting  of  tlie  president,  vice-president,  secretary,  treas- 
urer and  finance  committee  and  have  their  names  registered 
on  the  books  of  the  Association."  Furthermore,  "  when 
a  boy  applies  to  be  registered,  he  must  present  to  the 
board  of  officers  his  name  and  age,  also  the  written  con- 
sent of  his  guardian,  and  of  the  proprietor  of  the  factory 
in  which  he  intends  to  work."*** 

The  Window  Glass  Workers'  Association  requires  that 
all  applications  for  apprenticeship  must  come  from  journey- 
men. A  special  blank,  containing  information  as  to  the  age, 
citizenship,  relatives,  etc.,  of  the  apprentices  is  made  out 
by  the  chief  preceptor,  and  transmitted  to  the  board  of  ex- 
aminers. This  body  makes  an  investigation,  and  submits 
the  result  with  recommendations  to  the  preceptory.  The 
application  is  finally  passed  upon  by  the  executive  board 
of  the  International  Association.  The  executive  board  thus 
has  definite  knowledge  concerning  the  character  of  the 
apprentices  recommended,  and  retains  entire  control  of  the 
number   received.     The   unions   in   the  glass   industry,   by 

"  Constitution,  Laws  and  Due  Book  of  the  International  Broom 
and  Whisk  Makers'  Union,  Amsterdam,  New  York,  1904,  Art.  Ill, 
sec.  4  of  the  constitution  governing  local  unions. 

**  Constitution,  By-laws,  Standing  Rules  and  General  Laws  of  the 
International  Brotherhood  of  Bookbinders.  New  York,   1905.  p.  32. 

"  Constitution  and  By-laws  of  the  Hat  Finishers  of  the  City  of 
Newark,  New  Jersey,  i88r. 


78  .Ipf^rcnticcshif'  in  .InwridDt   Trade  Unions.       [5^>0 

placinp  control  of  apprentices  in  one  central  body,  are  able 
to  regulate  the  number  received  in  the  trade  as  a  whole. 
They  have  succeeded  in  enforcing  the  most  rigid  appren- 
tice rules.  The  plan  followed  by  the  IVn  and  Tocketknife 
(irinders'  and  Finishers'  Union  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
glass  workers.  "  Any  member  of  the  union  who  desires  to 
take  on  a  boy,  applies  to  the  grievance  committee.  After 
obtaining  their  consent,  the  application  goes  to  the  executive 
board.  Each  member  is  allowed  one  boy,  preferably  his 
own  son  for  whom  he  must  pay  twenty-five  cents  per  month 
dues,  until  he  attains  the  age  of  eighteen  years.""" 

The  secretary  of  the  local  is  in  most  unions  required  to 
keep  a  complete  list  of  all  apprentices  beginning  or  ending 
their  term  within  the  jurisdiction  of  his  local,  and  to  report 
to  the  international  union  at  stated  intervals.  In  cases 
where  a  joint  agreement  with  large  firms  exists,  it  is  com- 
mon for  a  permanent  joint  arbitration  board  to  have  charge 
of  all  questions  concerning  apprentices,  and  to  keep  a  record 
of  their  progress.  The  name,  place  and  time  of  those 
entering  upon  and  compKting  apprenticeship  terms  are 
|)rinted  in  many  of  the  trade  journals. 

In  most  tmions.  boys  are  apjirenticed  to  the  employer, 
to  whom  they  are  responsible  and  with  whom  contracts  are 
made.  The  apprenticing  of  boys  t<^  individual  journeymen 
occurs  in  only  a  few  industries,  and  in  most  of  the  trades 
is  positively  forl)id<len,  except  that  occasionally,  as  has  been 
tK)ted.  fathers  are  permitted  to  teach  the  trade  to  their 
sons.  The  unions  must  maintain  a  do.sc  supervision  over 
apprentices  lest  they  run  away,  and  become  members  of 
another  local  before  they  have  servefl  the  full  term/'  This 
is  especially  difficult  in  the  building  trades,  and  among  the 
machinists  and  cigar  makers.     The  journeyman  often  re- 


*•  Constitution  anri  Rv-laws  of  the  I'm  anri  Pockrtknifr  rifindcrs' 
and  I'inishcrs'  I'nion  o^  America.  Bridfjcport.  Conn.,  p.  6,  sees.  15-16. 

*'  Section  9  of  the  aRfeement   for   iqoj  hetween  local   luiions  and 

the    Riiilders'    Association   of   Chicago   provides   that    all    apprrntices 

i    '     •        !  to  memhers  of  the  Carpenters  and  Hiiilders'  Association 

I  to  the  joint  arltitration  hoarrl  at  its  meeting  on  the  first 

I  I.  w   •.  <.   in  January,  April  and  Dctobcr  of  each  year. 


561]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  79 

moves  to  another  locality  before  the  apprentice  has  com- 
pleted his  term.  The  employer  is  more  permanently 
situated.  For  this  reason,  the  policy  of  apprenticing  to 
employers  is  favored. 

The  terms  upon  which  the  applicant  agrees  to  become 
an  apprentice  are  embodied  in  a  verbal  or  written  contract 
or  an  indenture,  the  last  form  being  generally  recommended, 
but  little  used.  Thus,  the  convention  of  the  United  Brother- 
hood of  Carpenters  and  Joiners,  held  at  Detroit  in  1888, 
recommended  to  the  local  unions  that  "  all  boys  entering  the 
carpenter  trade  with  the  intention  of  learning  the  business, 
shall  be  held  by  agreement,  indenture  or  written  contract 
for  a  term  of  four  years. "•"'- 

In  order  that  the  boy  may  be  tested  as  to  ability,  fitness 
and  willingness  to  work,  the  employer  is  ordinarily  permitted 
to  take  him  on  probation,  the  probationary  period  varying  in 
dififerent  trades  and  places  from  two  wrecks  to  six  months. 
An  agreement  between  the  Master  Plumbers'  Association  of 
Lynn,  Mass.,  and  the  plumbers'  local  union  provides  that 
the  first  three  months  shall  be  on  probation.^^  The  Connec- 
ticut masters'  convention  in  1895  made  elaborate  provision 
for  a  probationary  period.  "  Any  boy  wishing  to  learn  the 
plumbing  trade,  a  certificate  shall  be  issued  to  him  by  the 
local  union  if  there  be  one ;  if  not,  then  by  the  state  organiza- 
tion that  he  is  a  regular  apprentice,  stating  time  and  amount 
of  pay  he  shall  receive  each  year  during  his  apprenticeship. 
The  six  months,  during  w'hich  he  is  on  probation,  shall 
count  as  part  of  his  term."^* 

Having  been  duly  apprenticed  under  conditions  acceptable 
to  the  union  and  to  the  employer,  the  boy  goes  to  his  work 
under  their  joint  care  and  protection.  He  is  ordinarily  re- 
quired to  carry  a  card,  for  which  a  small  fee  is  usually, 

"For  apprenticeship  rules  approved  by  the  Detroit  convention,  see 
The  Carpenter,  August,  1893,  P-  H- 

^'  Agreement  between  Master  Plumbers'  Association  of  Lynn, 
IMass.,  and  Vicinity,  and  the  Journeymen  Phimbers'  Association,  No. 
77,  sec.  3;  see  Plumbers'  Journal,  September,  1895,  p.  2. 

"  Report  adopted  by  Connecticut  Master  Plumbers'  Convention, 
Plumbers'  Journal,  September,  1895,  p.  2. 


So  Af'prcnticcshif'  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [562 

thouijh  not  always,  charged.  In  some  unions  this  card  is 
renewed  quarterly,  and  any  apprentice  not  carrying  the 
proper  (juarterly  card  is  not  permitted  to  work.'*  The  ap- 
I)rentice.  in  a  few  unions,  is  charged  an  admittance  fee,  pay- 
able in  full  or  in  part  ui>on  his  entrance  to  the  trade.  The 
r.rotherhood  of  Boiler  Makers  and  Iron  Shipbuilders  de- 
mands half  fees  of  the  boy;  and,  if  a  beneficiary  member, 
he  receives  half  the  benefits.  Moreover,  when  the  boy  be- 
comes of  age  or  is  able  to  command  the  wages,  he  must  pay 
the  remaining  half  fee.  In  the  Upholsterers'  International 
I'nion  the  boy,  after  six  months'  service,  is  required  to  take 
an  apj)rtntice  card,  for  which  he  must  pay  one  dollar. 

Age  of  Apprenticeship. — The  minimum  age  at  which  an 
apprentice  may  enter  upon  or  complete  his  trade  is  deter- 
mined in  a  large  measure  by  the  characteristics  of  each  trade. 
Where  nuich  physical  strength  is  recpiired  in  order  to  per- 
form the  work  properly,  or  where  great  danger  is  encoun- 
tered by  those  engaged  in  a  trade,  it  is  uncommon  to  find 
apprentices  received  under  sixteen  or  eighteen  years  of  age. 
In  crafts  where  less  strength  is  needed,  and  where  the  begin- 
ner is  less  liable  to  accidents.  api)rentices  are  received  at  a 
much  earlier  age.  The  Travelers'  Goods  and  Leather  Nov- 
elty Workers*  International  I'nion  receives  boys  at  fourteen. 
The  Chartered  Society  of  the  Amalgamated  Lace  Operatives 
of  America  will  accept  beginners  at  the  trade  at  any  age 
unrler  twenty-five.  The  minimum  age  is  influenced  in  some 
trades  by  factory  legislation.  Thus  the  International  Broth- 
erhood of  Bookbimlers  maintains  the  rule  that  "  no  person 
.shall  be  permitted  to  enter  the  trade  as  an  apprentice  under 
the  age  of  sixteen  nor  over  the  age  of  eighteen  years  at  the 
recognized  branch  of  the  Inxik  binding  industry,  provided 
that  in  stales  and  provinces  where  factory  age  limit  is  less 


*"  Apprentices  must  receive  apprentices*  working  card  at  the  com- 
n"-""^""^'"  '■*  '•.ich  q\iarter,  namely.  Jantiary,  April.  July  and  Oc- 
'  pay  fee.  five  rents  i»rr  iimnth   for  the  •..inic ;  "  Con- 

^'  I  ;,  laws  of  the  Operative  riastercrs'  International  As- 

s<^\M\nn,  No.  46,  of  the  City  of  Indianapolis  and  Marion  County, 
Irdiana.  1900,  Art.  VII,  sec.  6. 


563]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations,  81 

than  sixteen  years,  fifteen  years  shall  be  the  minimum  age 
for  apprentices."^" 

Most  unions  regulating  aj)prenticeship  prohibit  the  en- 
trance upon  apprenticeship  of  persons  over  a  certain  age. 
In  a  few  unions  old  men  are  granted  the  privilege  of  begin- 
ning an  apprenticeship.  Other  unions  are  rigid  in  this  re- 
spect, permitting  apprentices  to  enter  only  during  a  stated 
period  covering  a  very  few  years.  The  Journeymen  Stone 
Cutters'  Association  thus  provides  that  "  no  applicant  under 
the  age  of  fifteen  or  over  eighteen  shall  be  allowed  to  go  to 
the  trade. "^'  Section  2  of  an  agreement,  dated  May,  1902, 
between  local  unions  of  carpenters  and  the  Chicago  Builders' 
Association  provides  that  "  the  applicant  for  apprenticeship 
shall  not  be  more  than  seventeen  years  of  age  at  the  time 
for  making  application."^^  The  International  Steel  and 
Copper  Plate  Printers'  Union  of  Xorth  America  requires 
that  apprenticeship  must  begin  between  the  ages  of  seven- 
teen and  eighteen,  but  the  membership  qualifications  usually 
demanded  of  apprentices  may  be  w^aived  by  consent  of  the 
international  union. 

The  maximum  age  restriction  is  often  criticised  as  working 
a  hardship  upon  those  who  have  been  unable  to  begin  at  the 
required  time,  but  are  afterwards  desirous  of  taking  up  the 
trade.  It  is  argued,  however,  by  the  union  that  a  workman 
who  has  not  begun  to  learn  his  trade  until  late  in  life  is  gen- 
erally unwilling  to  submit  to  ordinary  apprenticeship  regu- 
lations. He  will  not  work  with  boys  for  a  long  term  at 
small  wages.  In  fact,  he  cannot  usually  afford  it,  if  he  must 
provide  for  a  family.  As  a  result,  the  man  apprentice  soon 
severs  his  relation  with  the  employer,  and  in  order  to  secure 
higher  wages  seeks  work  as  a  journeyman.  The  man,  there- 
fore, who  begins  his  trade  at  twenty-five  or  thirty  years  of 
age  seldom  becomes  a  capable  W'Orkman.     The  position  of 

^°  Constitution,  By-laws,  Standing  Rules  and  General  Laws  of  the 
International  Brotherhood  of  Bookbinders,  New  York,  1905,  p. 
32,  sec.  2. 

"  By-laws  of  the  Journeymen  Stone  Cutters'  Association  of  North 
America  (Washington,  n.  d.),  Art.  V,  sec.  2. 

**  See  The  Carpenter,  May,  1902,  p.  7. 

6 


82  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [564 

the  union  nnd  the  employers  is  concisely  expressed  in  the 
declaration  of  policy  adopted  hy  the  Mason  Builders'  Asso- 
ciation and  the  Hricklaycrs'  Unions  of  Boston  and  vicinity. 
"  To  prevent  the  taking  of  ap|)rontices  at  an  immature  ap:e, 
when  they  may  be  considered  on  the  averaiijc  as  physically 
unfit  for  such  laborious  work,  and  not  sufticicntly  educated 
to  warrant  Icavin.t:  school,  and  to  discouratje  the  bejijinning 
of  apprenticeshi|).  at  a  time  when  the  individual  may  be 
considered,  on  the  avcra.t::c.  as  havinp:  jiassed  that  period 
when  the  faculties  of  mind  and  body  are  in  the  condition 
which  is  most  receptive  of  instruction,  and  most  readily  adap- 
tive to  the  requirements  of  the  trade,  the  following  time  and 
term  arc  fixed." 

Term  of  Service . — The  term  of  apprenticeship  varies  in 
the  different  trades  from  two  to  seven  years,  three  and  four 
years  bcinfj  the  ordinary  term.  The  bakers  and  confection- 
ers and  the  broom  makers  rc<|uirc'  that  applicants  for  mcm- 
iKrship  shall  have  had  two  years'  experience.  The  watch 
case  engravers  require  apprentices  to  serve  five  years.  Some 
locals  in  the  plumbing  trade  keej)  the  boy  at  the  trade  six 
years.  The  machine  printers  re(|uire  that  each  apprentice  at 
the  trade  shall  serve  seven  years.'" 

In  theory  the  time  of  service  required  is  supposed  to  rep- 
resent the  time  necessary  for  a  boy  of  averajje  ability,  under 
fair  circumstances,  to  learn  the  trade  well  enous^h  to  demand 
a  journeyman's  wapes.  In  tlu-  same  trade,  however,  the 
term  varies  in  different  localities.  Thus  the  term  of  ap|)ren- 
ticeship  in  carj)eutry  in  Tacoma.  Washinj^ton.  is  three  years. 
while  in  many  eastern  cities  four  years  are  required.  In 
the  phmibinp  trarle  the  tertu  varies  from  two  to  six  years. 
This  variation  arises  partly  from  differences  in  the  class  of 
work  done,  but  more  especially  because  the  local  bodies  are 
strf)nper  in  some  jdaces  than  in  others.  .\  lonp  apprentice- 
ship term  is  the  rule  where  the  miion  is  strongly  orRanized, 

**Thc  apprenticeship  system  recently  put  in  operation  by  the  Knabe 
Piano  Conip,Tny  in  their  larRC  f,ictory  in  n.iltimorc  provides  for  a 
conr«  of  training  extending  over  a  period  of  eight  years.  The 
system  has  t>ren  evolved  by  the  company  entirely  ap-irt  from  the 
influences  of  the  union. 


565]        Character  of  Apprenticeship   Rci^ulations.  83 

or  the  finer  grades  of  work  are  to  be  learned ;  but  where  the 
union  is  weak  or  the  work  desired  is  in  the  main  of  an  orcH- 
nary  type,  the  tendency  is  toward  a  shorter  term. 

The  requirement  of  a  long  apprenticeship  term  in  an\ 
trade  that  may  be  picked  up  tends  to  defeat  the  very 
purpose  for  which  tlie  system  is  established.  Instead  of 
inducing  the  boy  to  learn  his  trade  in  the  prescribed  manner, 
a  long  term  of  service  is  likely  to  cause  him  to  take  up  hi.-? 
trade  as  a  non-unionist.  Not  infrequently  in  communities 
where  unions  are  weak  or  poorly  organized  the  apprentice 
wearies  of  his  long  service  as  a  beginner  at  small  wages,  and 
leaves  his  employer  to  seek  work  on  his  own  responsibility 
with  non-union  men.  Ordinarily  the  union  fixes  only  the 
minimum  term  of  apprenticeship,  and  leaves  to  the  individual 
initiative  of  the  apprentice  the  termination  of  the  period  of 
apprenticeship,  but  some  unions  find  it  necessary  to  set  a 
maximum  term.  Thus  the  piano  and  organ  workers  will  not 
permit  apprentices  to  serve  longer  than  three  years  without 
permission  of  the  local  union.  The  cigar  makers  follow  the 
same  policy.  In  1897,  E.  Presnail,  a  cigar  manufacturer, 
appealed  to  the  president  of  the  Cigar  Makers'  International 
Union  against  union  No.  55  of  Hamilton,  Ont.,  for  compel- 
ling an  apprentice  w-ho  had  served  three  years  at  the  trade 
to  join  the  union.  The  appellant  claimed  that  the  firm  was 
working  under  a  four-year  agreement  and  was  not  subject  to 
the  apprentice  rule  of  the  union.  The  president  decided  that 
unless  the  firm  could  produce  the  written  agreement  or  con- 
tract the  apprentice  must  become  a  member  of  the  union.""^ 

Perhaps  no  trade  illustrates  better  than  cigar  making  the 
prime  difficulty  encountered  in  any  attempt  to  fix  by  national 
law  a  uniform  term  of  apprenticeship  for  all  branches  of  the 
craft.  Cigar  making  consists  in  the  main  of  two  parts, 
bunch  making  and  rolling.  Each  may  be  learned  by  begin- 
ners within  three  or  four  weeks,  and  within  as  many  months 
the  new  apprentice  has  learned  both  branches  sufficiently 
well  to  make  the  cheaper  grade  of  cigars.     Beginners  are 


Cigar  Makers'  Journal,  April,  1897. 


$4  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [566 

permitted  to  liandlc  only  inferior  material.  Those  who  oper- 
ate machines  require  even  less  time  to  learn  the  trade  than 
those  who  work  by  hand,  hut  their  product  is  also  of  an 
inferior  quality."'  However,  the  total  amount  of  cheap 
cigars  consumed  is  quite  large,  creating  a  constant  demand 
for  workmen  who  possess  just  sufficient  ability  and  skill  to 
enable  them  to  make  such  a  grade  of  goods.  The  three-year 
term  of  service,  demanded  of  apprentices  in  strictly  union 
shops,  is  perhaps  not  too  long  for  those  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing the  best  brands  of  cigars,  since  this  class  of  work- 
ers must  make  bunches,  roll  the  wrappers  and  make  cigars 
of  many  sizes. 

The  length  of  the  apprenticeship  term  is  supposed  to  be 
of  sufficient  duration  and  the  training  of  such  a  nature  that 
the  learner  will  be  enabled  to  perform  not  only  the  cheaper 
grades  of  work,  but  to  render  the  highest  class  of  service 
demanded  in  the  industry.  Where  both  classes  of  workmen 
are  employed  in  the  same  trade  as  in  cigar  making,  it  be- 
comes a  serious  question  with  the  union  how  far  to  press  the 
rule  which  requires  all  apprentices  to  serve  a  stated  number 
of  years  before  being  admitted  to  the  imion.  If  made  too 
rigid,  the  number  excluded  from  the  imion  would  be  large, 
and  the  influence  of  the  organization  would  be  seriously 
endangered.  If  too  liberal  in  its  apprenticeship  require- 
ments, the  trade  would  be  filled  with  incompetent  workmen, 
and  a  high  standard  of  workmanshij)  and  a  high  rate  of 
wages  would  be  flifficult  to  maintain. 

On  the  whole,  the  result  of  enforcing  a  long  apprentice- 
ship iti  ."^killed  trades  is  to  secure  the  better  class  of  workmen 
as  members  of  the  union,  but  to  exclude  thr>se  who  possess 
less  skill.  Tlic  conflict  of  interest  In'tween  these  classes  of 
workers  makes  it  imjwssible  for  all  the  local  unions  in 
the  trade  to  enforce  the  sajue  membership  requirements. 
The  difficulty  is  generally  minimized  by  receiving  as  rliem- 
bers  not  only  those  who  arc  known  to  have  served  the  full 
time,  but  also  any  others  who  ran  command  the  scale  of 
wniTs  regardless  of  the  time  spent  in  Itaniiiii:  the  trade. 
Makers'  Journal,  March,  1883,  p    1 


567]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  85 

Disputes  over  the  length  of  time  the  apprentices  must 
serve  have  occasionally  arisen  between  employers  and  the 
unions  ;  but,  in  most  cases,  the  terms  have  been  fixed  by  cus- 
tom of  long  standing,  and,  with  perhaps  a  few  exceptions, 
have  not  been  reduced  because  of  any  modern  changes  in 
the  trade. 

The  length  of  a  service  year  varies  in  different  unions. 
The  fires  in  glass  furnaces  are  drawn  during  July  and  Au- 
gust, and  the  work  of  all  apprentices  and  journeymen  is  dis- 
continued during  this  time.  Some  unions  require  that  the 
apprentice  be  kept  at  work  during  a  certain  number  of 
months  each  year.  Thus  the  apprentice  provisions  in  the 
agreement  between  the  Chicago  Builders'  Association  and 
the  local  unions  specify :  "  The  contractor  taking  an  appren- 
tice shall  engage  to  keep  him  at  work  for  nine  consecutive 
months  in  each  year  and  see  that  during  the  remaining  three 
months  of  the  year  the  apprentice  attends  school.  The  ap- 
prentice shall,  during  the  months  of  January,  February  and 
March  of  each  year,  attend  a  technical  school  acceptable  to 
the  joint  board,  and  a  certificate  that  he  has  done  so  will  be 
required  before  he  is  allowed  to  work  during  the  year."°- 

Journeymen  in  the  building  trades  rarely  have  more  than 
nine  months'  steady  work  in  a  year.  The  average  term  of 
employment  for  apprentices  cannot  be  more,  and  is  often 
much  less.  If  the  employer  has  contracts  to  justify  continu- 
ous work,  the  apprentice  may  be  engaged  during  the  entire 
year,  assuming  no  agreement  to  the  contrary.  In  the  event 
of  business  depression  or  during  periods  of  inactivity,  it  may 
be  impossible  for  the  employer  to  fulfill  his  contract,  and 
the  apprentice  may  be  unable  to  secure  work  from  any  other 
source  for  more  than  a  few  months  of  the  year.  Occasion- 
ally the  apprentice  finds  some  other  form  of  employment 
when  thus  temporarily  released,  or  the  employer  may  pay 
him  as  though  he  were  actually  at  work.     During  periods 

"  "  Joint  Arbitration  Agreement  between  the  Chicago  Masons  and 
Builders'  Association  and  the  United  Order  of  American  Bricklayers 
and  Stone  Masons'  Union,  No.  21,  of  the  Bricklayers  and  Masons' 
International  Union.    April  i,  1903.  to  May  i,  1905."     (n.  p.  n.  d.) 


so  .}/>pri'nlici'shif'  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [568 

of  business  inactivity  jourufyincn  arc  usually  discharged, 
and.  u|)  to  a  certain  limit,  apprentices  retained.  The  oppo- 
site arrangement  is,  however,  sometimes  made. 

In  onlcr  to  prevent  boys  from  leaving  their  employers 
before  finishing  the  stated  term  of  service,  the  unions  have 
enacted  rigid  rules  with  reference  to  runaway  apprentices. 
The  apprentice  must  begin  and  end  his  term  in  the  same 
shop  unless  he  is  prevented  from  doing  so  by  the  death  or 
removal  of  his  employer,  or  is  granted  a  clearance  cartl  by 
the  union.  Should  the  api)rentice  leave  without  just  cause, 
he  cannot  be  received  by  any  local  union,  nor  even  be  per- 
mitted to  wtirk  with  union  men."''  The  following  regulation 
of  the  Painters',  Decorators'  and  Paperhangers'  I'nion  is 
typical  of  the  building  trades  in  tills  respect:  "  When  a  l)oy 
shall  have  contracted  with  an  enijiloycr  to  serve  a  certain 
number  of  years,  he  shall  on  no  pretense  whatever  leave 
said  employer  and  contract  with  another  without  the  free 
and  full  consent  of  said  emplo\er.  unless  there  is  just  cause 
or  such  change  is  made  in  conseciuence  of  death  or  relin- 
qui.shing  of  business  by  the  first  employer  :  any  apprentice 
so  leaving  shall  not  be  permitted  to  work  uikKt  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  any  local  union  in  our  Protherhootl,  but  shall  be  re- 
quired to  return  to  bis  employer  and  serve  out  his  appren- 
ticeship.""* 

The  "  runaway  column  "  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the 
trade  journals  in  the  stone  cutters',  carpenters*  and  brick- 
layers' unions.  The  published  list  contains  the  name,  age 
and  residence  of  the  delinciuent  Ixiy,  the  residence  of  the 
employer,  a  statement  of  the  term  that  the  \)o\  has  served, 

"  Exceptions  to  the  rule  arc  sometimes  made  when  the  apprentice 

i>  the  son  of  .n  jotirncym.in.     A  H.ihimnrc  employer  of  stone  cutters 

ln|r|  thr  prcscnt  writer  of  the  following  experiences:    The  son  of  a 

■n   was  apprenticed   to  the   employer.     'Ihc   f.ithcr  of  the 

I  to  .inotlirr  city  t-ikinR  his  son  with  him.     The  employer 

•  1  to  the  union  to  reinst.ite  the  .ipprenticc  .iiul  compel  him  to 

•■  I'ly  with  the  terms  of  the  contr.nct      This  the  union  refused  to 

>;  ..  tLiimniK  th.it  it  was  an  unwritten  law  that  a  journeyman  could 

take  his  son  with  him  wherever  he  miRht  ro. 

"Constitution  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Painters.  Decorators  and 
Paperhangers  of  America  (Lafayette,  1901),  Art.  XLV,  sec  6. 


569]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulatimis.  87 

any  clue  to  his  possible  whereabouts  and  a  warning"  lo  all 
members  of  the  union  to  be  on  the  alert  to  locate  him. 

The  apprentice  cannot  be  summarily  discharged  except  for 
incompetency  or  constant  neglect,  or,  at  least,  if  discharged 
without  an  explanation  satisfactory  to  the  union,  his  place 
cannot  be  filled  until  the  expiration  of  the  time  for  which  he 
agreed  to  serve. "^  The  employer  has  the  final  word  as  to 
the  fitness  of  the  boy  to  continue  at  work,  and  can  discharge 
him  at  any  time.  But,  in  general,  the  particular  journeyman 
under  whose  instruction  the  apprentice  has  been  placed  is 
regarded  as  best  qualified  to  speak  as  to  the  boy's  ability  and 
conduct,  and  the  discharge  of  an  apprentice  is  ordinarily 
upon  his  recommendation  or  that  of  the  foreman  of  the  shop. 

Should  the  employer  suspend  business  during  the  time 
the  apprentice  is  serving  his  term,  some  unions  endeavor  to 
find  new  positions  for  beginners  thus  displaced.®'^  Ordi- 
narily the  apprentice  is  required  to  finish  his  term  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  union  where  he  was  first  engaged.  The 
stone  cutters  provide :  "  If  any  employer  should  cease  to 
carry  on  the  stone  cutting  business,  the  apprentices  in  his 
employ  shall  be  compelled  to  finish  their  time  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  branch  with  which  they  started,  provided 
they  can  obtain  employment."®^  Should  the  apprentice  be 
unable  to  obtain  employment  within  the  jurisdiction  of  his 
union,  he  is  given  a  "  clearance  card  "  to  be  presented  in 

^  A  typical  rule  in  this  regard  is  that  adopted  by  the  bricklayers 
of  Baltimore.  "  Any  employer  who  shall  from  the  want  of  employ- 
ment or  any  other  cause  than  the  incompetency  of  the  apprentice  to 
learn  the  business,  transfer  or  discharge  his  apprentice,  shall  be 
debarred  from  taking  any  other  apprentice,  until  the  time  for  which 
the  said  apprentice  w'as  registered  to  serve  has  expired."  Constitu- 
tion and  B\'-laws  of  the  Bricklayers'  Protective  and  Beneficiary 
Union  (Baltimore,  1901),  Art.  XXX,  sec.  2. 

'* "  Should  any  employer  suspend  or  give  up  business,  it  is  the 
dutv  of  a  subordinate  union  to  provide  a  place  for  any  apprentices 
that  may  be  thrown  out  of  employment,  and  desire  to  finish  their 
time,  and,  at  the  expiration  of  their  apprenticeship,  they  shall,  if 
found  competent,  be  entitled  to  journeymen's  wages  upon  joining 
the  union."  Constitution  and  Rules  of  Order  of  the  Bricklayers' 
and  Masons'  International  Union  of  America  (North  Adams,  Massa- 
chusetts,  1902),   Art.    XIII,  sec.  3. 

"  By-laws  of  the  Journeymen  Stone  Cutters'  Association  of  North 
America   (Washington.  1900).  Art.  V,  sec.  4. 


88  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [570 

making  application  to  the  union  in  another  place.  Such  an 
applicant  must  pivc  proof  of  his  fonner  connection,  and  if 
accepted,  must  serve  such  length  of  time  as  may  be  fixed 
by  the  union  receiving  him.*' 

When  a  shop  becomes  non-union,  any  apprentice  refusing 
to  leave  his  work,  when  ordered  away  by  the  officers  of  his 
local  union,  is  usually  liable  to  any  penalty  which  that  body 
may  see  fit  to  impose.  The  United  Hatters  and  a  majority 
of  other  unions  permit  the  local  bodies  to  adjust  such  mat- 
ters. In  cases  of  long-continued  strikes  or  lockouts  the 
instruction  of  the  apprentice  may  be  seriously  interrupted, 
so  that  it  is  impossible  in  the  remaining  time  of  his  term 
for  him  to  acquire  sufficient  skill  to  entitle  him  to  be  classed 
as  a  journeyman.  Under  such  circumstances,  it  is  custo- 
mary for  the  union  to  grant  a  permit  to  the  apprentice,  that 
he  may  have  an  opportunity  to  continue  his  apprenticeship 
elsewhere.  In  the  majority  of  strikes,  whether  the  ap- 
prentice remained  at  work  or  not  would  not  materially 
affect  the  position  of  either  party  to  the  controversy,  while, 
on  the  contrary,  to  interrupt  aj»preiiticcship  for  any  great 
length  of  time  seriously  hatidicajis  the  apprentice  in  learning 
the  trade.  Some  unions,  therefore,  will  not  permit  the  ap- 
prentice to  be  penalized  fur  remaining  at  work  in  a  struck 
shop. 

Any  apprentice  who  has  served  a  portion  of  his  term  of 
service  in  a  foreign  country  and  desires  to  continue  the  same 


""  .Any  ,-ipplicant  for  time  In  fiiii-^h  his  tr.idc  should  he  find  a  place 
as  an  apprentice  in  sonic  shop  wljere  they  liave  not  the  full  comple- 
ment of  apprentices  prescrihcd  hy  the  hranch  to  which  he  applies, 
shall  l)e  required  to  rivc  prof)f  hy  Ins  work  that  he  lias  already  served 
p.irt  of  his  time  l)efore  he  shall  lie  entitled  to  the  protection  of  this 
as'ifK-iation,  ancj  a  majority  of  the  members  working  in  the  shop 
wlierc  he  is  employee!  shall  determine  how  long  he  shall  he  required 
to  serve,  and  shall  personally  testify  before  the  ineetinK  of  the 
hranch  their  opinion  of  the  time  he  shall  serve,  and  in  rase  a 
majority  cannot  Ik*  present  they  shall  drleRate  one  or  more  of  their 
mrml>ers  to  appear  before  said  hranch  meeting  with  their  decision 
in  writing.  No  applicant  of  this  character  shall  be  more  than  twenty 
years  of  age,  and  all  apprentices  or  improvers  must  present  them- 
selves before  said  branch  meeting  within  two  weeks  after  they  are 
engaged."  Constimtion  and  Hy-laws  of  the  Journeymen  Stone  Cut- 
ters' Association  ( ,  1892),  Art.  VI,  sec.  6. 


57 1 ]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  89 

in  the  United  States  is  ordinarily  required  to  furnish  proof 
of  the  work  done  as  an  apprentice  in  his  native  land.  The 
wire  weavers  are  more  rigid  in  this  respect  than  most  other 
unions.  They  maintain  that,  since  the  "  weavers  "  in  for- 
eign countries  do  not  restrict  apprentices  in  the  proper  ratio 
for  the  benefit  of  the  trade,  "  any  persons  starting  their  ap- 
prenticeship in  any  foreign  country  and  not  serving  their 
legal  or  full  apprenticeship,  will  not  be  recognized  or  allowed 
to  finish  their  apprenticeship  in  this  country."*'" 

Number  of  Apprentices. — Perhaps  the  most  prominent 
feature  of  apprenticeship  regulation  is  a  limitation  on  the 
number  of  apprentices.  This  limitation  is  expressed  in 
terms  of  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  apprentices  to  the 
number  of  journeymen,  or  to  the  shop  or  the  contractor. 
The  limitation  on  the  number  of  apprentices,  more  than 
any  other  regulation  of  apprenticeship,  is  determined  by 
local  conditions.  Thus,  the  common  rule  for  the  granite 
cutters  is  one  apprentice  to  every  gang  or  fraction  thereof, 
a  gang  consisting  of  thirteen  men.  But,  in  Oregon,  the 
ratio  as  fixed  by  state  agreement  is  one  to  twelve.'^"  In 
the  Milford,  N.  H.,  agreement,  the  ratio  is  one  to  four- 
teen,^^  and  at  Westerly,  R.  I.,  it  is  not  more  than  one  to 
five  journeymen."  The  regulations  of  the  Maryland  branch 
provide  that  "  firms  employing  five  journeymen  five  months 
in  the  year  are  allowed  one  apprentice,  two  for  first  gang 
(thirteen),  and  one  for  each  additional  gang."  At  Rich- 
mond, Va.,  employers  using  five  journeymen  or  less  are 
allowed  not  more  than  two  apprentices,  and  one  additional 
apprentice  for  every  five  additional  journeymen  regularly 
employed,'^    and    at    Jacksonville,    Fla.,    one    apprentice    is 

*'  Constitution  and  By-laws  and  Schedule  of  Prices  of  the  Na- 
tional Executive  Board  of  the  American  Wire  Weavers'  Protective 
Association,  Newark,  1902,  Art.  V. 

"  See  Bill  of  Prices  for  Cutting  Granite  in  the  State  of  Oregon, 
July  I,  1898,  to  IMay  i,  1900. 

"  See  Bill  of  Prices  for  Milford,  N.  H.,  Alarch  i,  1902,  to  March 
I,  1903,  p.  4.  par.  4. 

'"See  Bill  of  Prices  for  Westerly,  R.  I.,  to  March  i,  1900,  p.  6, 
sec.  VI. 

''  See  Bill  of  Prices  for  cutting  granite  in  Richmond,  Va.,  ^lay, 
1900,  p.  12. 


90  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [572 

allowcil  in  i-ach  shop  where  fifty  nun  may  he  employed.^* 
In  some  industries,  notahly  in  tlic  buihhnp:  and  printing 
trades,  the  chief  unions  are  largely  recruited  from  artisans 
who  have  learned  their  traile  in  the  smaller  places.  Under 
these  C(^nditions,  the  unions  in  the  larger  places  frequently 
limit  severely  the  number  of  ai)prentices.  counting  upon  the 
influx  of  workmen. 

Similarly,  in  those  unions  in  which  the  number  of  mem- 
bers tluctuates  greatly  a  local  union  frequently  raises  the 
apprentice  ratio  in  order  to  prevent  an  increase  of  appren- 
tices from  the  temporary  presence  of  journeymen  within 
its  jurisdiction.  In  the  stone  cutting  industry,  it  frequently 
happens  that  twenty-five  or  more  journeymen  are  sent  tem- 
l)orarily  to  one  locality.  Were  the  ordinary  ratio  adhered 
to  under  such  circumstances,  the  number  of  apprentices 
received  would  be  greatly  increased,  and,  as  the  journey- 
men thus  employed  remain  only  until  the  job  on  which  they 
arc  employed  is  completed,  the  apprentices  would  be  much 
in  excess  of  the  number  allowed  under  normal  conditions, 
and  more  than  the  needs  of  the  locality  would  justify. 
I'urthermore,  the  same  journeymen  are  often  transferred 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  another  local  during  the  period  covered 
by  the  term  of  the  apprenticeship,  thereby  augmenting  the 
basis  upon  which  apprentices  may  be  taken.  The  follow- 
ing communication  to  the  Hatters'  Journal  describes  the 
practice  of  some  employers  in  that  industry :  "  At  the  time 
our  laws  gave  manufacturers  the  privilege  of  employing 
an  apprentice  for  every  six  or  seven  journeymen  employed, 
advantage  was  taken  of  the  law  to  employ  six,  twelve  or 
eighteen  men  for  a  few  weeks,  so  that  the  adthtional  mmiber 
of  apprentices  could  be  registered  for  the  shop,  and  then 
the  journeymen  were  discharged.  This  was  unfair  to  the 
journeymen  put  on  the  road,  but  the  injustice  did  not  stop 
there.  When  dull  times  came,  work  was  foimd  for  the 
apprentices,  and  the  journeymen  were  sent  home."" 

The  Glass  Bottle  Blowers'  Association  maintains  the  rule 

**Sec  ARrccmcnt  Governing  Granite  Cutting  in  J.icksonvillc.  I"I.i.. 
March.  190.^.  to  March  l.  1904. 
''Hatters'  Journal,  October,  1898,  p.  11. 


573 J        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  91 

that  "  firms,  who  from  any  cause  reduce  their  number  of 
journeymen  must  also  reduce  their  number  of  apprentices 
so  that  at  all  times  they  shall  be  within  the  provisions  of 
the  law."^"  The  practice  of  discharging  apprentices  and 
retaining  journeymen  during  periods  of  business  inactivity 
or  in  times  of  emergency  is,  however,  not  an  accepted  trade- 
union  policy.  In  the  first  place,  to  discharge  an  apprentice 
during  the  period  of  training  means  a  serious  interruption 
in  his  course  of  instruction,  and  lessens  his  opportunities 
of  becoming  a  skilled  workman.  If  compelled  to  serve 
the  term  at  different  places  under  different  instructors,  the 
apprentice  will  in  all  probability  acquire  less  skill  than  if 
his  training  had  been  continuous  and  in  the  same  shop. 
Again,  the  discharged  apprentice  usually  wanders  from 
place  to  place,  is  employed  in  union  and  non-union  shops, 
and  is  often  received  in  some  local  union  before  he  has 
served  the  specified  term.  The  net  result  is  a  shortened 
term  with  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  ratio  of  appren- 
tices to  journeymen. 

Two  chief  forms  of  ratio  are  used  in  restricting  the 
number  of  apprentices.  The  first  is  a  fixed  ratio,  which  re- 
mains the  same  however  great  the  number  of  journeymen 
employed."^  The  second  is  a  declining  ratio,  in  which  the 
proportion  of  apprentices  is  reduced  as  the  number  of 
journeymen  increases.  Some  unions  limit  the  number  of 
apprentices  which  may  be  employed  in  any  one  shop,  be- 
yond which  no  additions  are  allowed."^*     Thus,  the  stone 

Constitution,  By-laws  and  Appendix  of  the  Glass  Bottle  Blowers' 
Association  of  the  United  States  and  Canada,  Camden,  New  Jersev, 
1903,  p.  29,  sec.  10. 

'^ "  It  is  agreed  by  parties  hereto,  that  no  master  plumber  shall 
have  more  than  one  apprentice  to  every  three  men  or  fraction  thereof, 
and  no  boy  under  sixteen  years  of  age  shall  enter  the  trade."  See 
Agreement  between  the  Masters  and  Plumbers  of  Spokane,  Washing- 
ton, Art.  13.  Plumbers'  Journal,  June.  1899,  p.  13. 

Each  joint  shop  shall  be  entitled  to  one  apprentice  on  an  aver- 
age of  ten  to  fifteen  men,  based  on  men  employed  between  March 
to  November  i,  and  one  additional  apprentice  for  every  additional 
fifteen  men  employed  based  upon  the  above  average.  But,  in  no 
case,  shall  any  shop  be  allowed  to  have  more  than  four  apprentices." 
See  By-laws  and  Trade  Rules  of  the  District  Council  of  Brother- 
hood of  Painters,  Decorators  and  Paperhangers  of  America,  St. 
Louis  and  Vicinity,  1903,  p.  20,  sec.  i. 


92  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [574 

cutters  provide :  "  Any  branch  of  the  Association  shall  have 
the  privilege  of  regulating  the  number  of  apprentices  in 
each  yard ;  one  where  less  than  fifteen  men  are  employed, 
two  where  less  than  one  hundred,  and  in  no  case  to  exceed 
four  in  any  yard."'® 

Ordinarily,  apprenticeship  rules  are  favorable  to  the 
smaller  shops,  in  that  they  are  allowed  a  greater  number  of 
apprentices  than  are  permitted  to  the  larger  shops.  Thus 
apprentices  are  not  allowed  at  all  in  the  newspaper  offices 
of  New  York,  Philadelphia  and  other  large  cities.  This 
rule  was  passed  by  the  local  typographical  unions,  but  is 
not  actively  opposed  by  the  publishers  since  it  does  not 
pay  to  train  apprentices.  The  same  is  true  in  the  cigar 
making  industry  and  in  the  building  trades.  The  large 
employers  are  ordinarily  less  desirous  of  having  apprentices. 
At  present,  a  large  majority  of  those  learning  the  above 
mentioned  trades  do  so  in  small  shops,  often  in  small  towns, 
where  it  is  less  expensive  to  all  concerned.  However,  since 
the  city  employer  is  able  to  pay  a  higher  wage  than  the 
employer  in  the  small  town  or  office,  he  has  no  difficulty  in 
obtaining  skilled  workmen. 

In  certain  trades  where  many  incompetents  have  formerly 
been  admitted,  and  an  effort  is  being  made  to  raise  the 
standard  of  wages,  apprentices  are  prohibited  altogether 
for  a  given  period.  The  case  of  the  Plumbers  has  already 
been  cited.®"  When  the  Watch  Case  Engravers'  Interna- 
tional Association  of  America  was  organized,  that  body  at- 
tempted to  enforce  a  rule  that  "  no  person,  male  or  female, 
should  be  admitted  into  the  engraving  trade  for  a  term  of 
four  years."  This  was  defended  on  the  ground  that  some 
manufacturers  had  employed  a  large  number  of  boys,  but  had 
taught  them  only  part  of  the  engraving  trade,  with  the  result 
that  a  large  number  of  poorly  trained  engravers  had  been 
admitted  into  the  union,  so  that  the  high  standard  of  work- 
manship, formerly  maintained  by  the  craft  in  general,  was 


"  Constitution  of  Journeymen  Stone  Cutters'  Association,  adopted 
1900  (Washington,  n.  d.),  Art.  V,  sec.  7. 
"*  See  supra,  p.  74. 


575]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  93 

being  lowered,  and  few  fully  equipped  artists  were  being 
trained. 

In  many  cases,  the  ratio  is  fixed  by  agreement  with  the 
individual  employers  or  employers'  associations,  and  may 
be  changed  yearly  if  desired.  With  perhaps  a  few  excep- 
tions, such  as  the  iron  molding  and  glass  industries,  the 
ratio  has  become  fixed  by  custom,  and  is  seldom  changed. 
The  wide  difference  in  existing  ratios  is  due  largely  to 
variations  in  the  local  labor  supply.  If  sufficient  workmen 
be  present  to  carry  on  the  work,  no  one  is  anxious  to  take 
on  new  apprentices  and  those  applying  are  easily  dis- 
couraged. At  other  places,  employers  will  not  be  bothered 
with  apprentices,  preferring  to  employ  an  extra  number 
of  journeymen  at  a  higher  rate,  if  there  be  a  sudden  de- 
mand, and  to  discharge  them  when  business  resumes  its 
normal  condition.  In  the  matter  of  apprentices  as  well  as 
in  other  features  of  unionism  the  rigidity  of  the  rule  and 
the  degree  of  strictness  with  which  it  is  enforced  depend 
in  a  large  measure  upon  the  strength  of  the  local  union, 
and  upon  the  power  of  the  employers. 

The  Wage  of  the  Apprentice. — The  wage  received  by 
the  apprentice  is  usually  a  matter  of  agreement  between 
the  boy  and  his  employer,  although  some  unions  insist  upon 
making  certain  provisions  in  this  particular.  Thus  the 
Broom  and  Whisk  Makers,  working  by  the  piece,  provide 
that  "  apprentices  shall  receive  the  same  amount  of  pay 
as  the  journeymen  receive  for  their  work."^^  Such  a  regu- 
lation, when  rigidly  enforced,  removes  the  temptation  to 
substitute  the  cheap  labor  of  the  boy  for  the  more  expensive 
services  of  the  skilled  journeymen.  However,  any  local 
union  that  possesses  power  sufficient  to  enforce  such  a  rule 
is  also  in  a  position  to  limit  efficiently  the  number  of  appren- 
tices by  direct  law.  The  Metal  Polishers,  Buffers,  Platers, 
Brass  Molders,  Brass  and  Silver  Workers'  International 
Union  provides  that  the  wages  of  the  apprentice  must  be 

*^  International  Broom  and  Whisk  Makers'  Union,  Due  Book  and 
Constitution,  Amsterdam,  New  York,  1904,  p.  47,  sec.  2. 


94  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [5/6 

regulated  by  the  local  union  in  whose  jurisdiction  the  ap- 
prentice is  employed.*^  The  Toledo  screw  workers'  union 
provides  that  "  all  apprentices  working  day  work  shall 
receive  not  less  than  $1.25  per  day  of  ten  hours,  and  $2.00 
shall  be  allowed  for  piece  work  for  ten  hours. "^^  The 
Amalgamated  Lace  Operatives  vary  the  amount  received 
by  the  apprentice  during  each  year  of  his  service  accord- 
ing to  tlie  work  actually  done.  They  also  provide  that  the 
journeyman  shall  charge  for  his  services  as  instructor  of 
the  apprentice.  This  is  thought  to  be  a  just  compensa- 
tion to  the  journeyman,  w^ho  must  lose  time  from  his  own 
machine  while  instructing  the  beginner.  The  rule  covering 
this  point  provides  that  the  apprentice  "  shall  serve  three 
years,  and  be  paid  as  follows :  sixty  per  cent  [of  the  journey- 
man's rate]  the  first  year,  seventy-five  per  cent  the  second 
year,  and  ninety  per  cent  the  third  year  on  one  half  of  the 
racks  made  on  the  machine,  the  difference  to  be  equally 
divided  between  teacher  and  employer.  In  any  case  where 
the  employer  does  not  claim  his  share  of  the  percentage, 
the  same  goes  to  the  apprentice ;  and,  where  there  is  no 
teacher,  the  apprentice  shall  be  paid  on  all  racks  made  on 
the  machine,  and  shall  receive  the  teacher's  percentage."®* 
Where  apprenticeship  is  regulated  in  great  detail  by  con- 
ferences between  employers  and  employees,  the  wages  of 
the  apprentice  are  usually  provided  for  in  the  agreement. 
This  is  in  most  cases  an  advantage  to  the  apprentice,  since 
the  union  is  able  to  obtain  better  terms  for  him  than  he 
could  secure  for  himself.  The  joint  arbitration  agreement 
made  by  the  Chicago  Masons'  and  Builders'  Association 
and  the  local  bricklayers'  union  contains  the  provision  that 
"  the  minimum  wages  of  an  apprentice  shall  not  be  less 
than  two  hundred  and  sixty  dollars  for  the  first  vcar,  three 
hundred  for  the  second  year,  three  hundred  and  fiftv  for 


*'  Constitution  and  By-laws,  1903,  Art.  XXXIV,  sec.  2. 

'^  Constitution  and  By-laws  of  Screw  Workers'  Union  No.  11, 
Toledo,  1889,  Art.  VII,  sec.  3. 

"  By-laws  of  the  Chartered  Society  of  the  Amalgamated  Lace 
Curtain  Operatives  of  America,  Philadelphia,  1902,  Art.  IV,  sec.  I. 


577]       Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  95 

the  third  year  and  four  hundred  for  the  fourth  year,  pay- 
able semi-monthly."*^  Some  employers  pay  the  apprentice 
a  certain  wage  while  he  is  serving  his  term  with  the  promise 
of  an  additional  sum  to  be  paid  upon  the  completion  of 
the  apprenticeship,  the  purpose  being  to  hold  the  boy 
throughout  the  entire  term  and  to  encourage  him  to  take 
advantage  of  the  opportunities  offered.  This  plan  is  not 
possible  in  some  trades  because  of  the  irregularity  of  em- 
ployment and,  therefore,  the  frequent  necessity  of  changing 
employers. 

Training  of  the  Apprentice. — During  the  early  part  of  the 
apprenticeship  period  the  boy's  labor  is  worth  little,  and  he 
is  usually  given  the  odd  jobs  about  the  shop  or  placed  on 
coarse  work  under  the  care  and  instruction  of  a  journey- 
man or  foreman.  In  the  glass  industries,  he  is  permitted 
to  begin  with  the  small  sizes ;  the  cigar  makers  allow  him 
to  make  the  cheaper  grades,  for  which  a  poor  quality  of 
tobacco  is  used,  while  the  iron  molders  require  the  beginners 
to  make  the  simplest  pieces.  In  some  unions,  frequently 
among  the  plumbers,  the  apprentice  is  assigned  to  a  par- 
ticular workman  to  whom  he  must  go  for  all  instruction ; 
in  others,  very  often  among  the  stone  cutters,  he  is  per- 
mitted to  ask  questions  of  any  journeyman  engaged  on  the 
work,  and  the  workman  so  questioned  must  devote  a  reason- 
able amount  of  time  to  giving  him  the  desired  information. 
The  opportunities  of  the  apprentice  to  learn  the  trade  de- 
pend largely  upon  the  character  of  the  boy,  the  attitude 
of  the  employer,  and  the  interest  of  the  journeyman.  In 
some  cases,  the  apprentices  are  neglected ;  in  others,  the 
employers,  in  order  to  make  the  boy  pay  his  way  as  soon 
as  possible  and  in  the  end  become  an  efficient  workman, 
take  personal  interest  in  him  and  give  him  the  best  advan- 


"  Joint  Arbitration  Agreement  between  the  Chicago  Masons  and 
Builders'  Association  and  the  United  Order  of  American  Bricklayers' 
and  Stone  Masons'  Union  No.  31,  of  the  Bricklayers'  and  Masons' 
International  Union,  April  i,  1903,  to  May  i,  1905,  p.  18. 


96  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [578 

tages.^*^  It  has  long  been  the  practice  of  the  employers 
of  stone  cutters  in  Baltimore  to  pay  the  tuition  of  their 
apprentices  at  the  Maryland  Institute  so  that  they  may 
acquire  the  principles  of  drawing  and  sketching.  The  prog- 
ress of  the  apprentice  during  his  term  of  service  thus 
depends  upon  his  ability,  upon  the  opportunities  given  him 
by  the  employer  and  upon  the  interest  taken  in  him  by  the 
journeymen.  Unless  a  detailed  agreement  be  formulated, 
the  union  makes  only  general  rules  in  these  particulars. 
Usually  they  are  expressed  in  the  form  of  a  charge  to  the 
journeymen,  the  foreman  or  the  members  of  the  union  to 
see  that  the  boy  has  competent  instruction  and  opportuni- 
ties for  advancement.  The  following  paragraph  from  the 
rules  of  the  Stone  Cutters  is  typical :  '*  It  shall  be  the  im- 
perative duty  of  the  shop  stewards  and  members  to  see  that 
all  apprentices  in  their  respecive  shops  are  given  as  good 
work  as  they  are  able  to  do,  in  order  that  they  may  become 
skilled  workmen,  fitted  to  take  their  places  as  journeymen 
in  our  midst."®" 

The  specific  w'ork  to  be  performed  by  the  apprentice 
during  each  year  of  his  term  is,  in  many  cases,  defined  by 
the  constitution  of  the  union,  or  specified  in  the  general 
agreement.  Where  the  trade  is  best  learned  through  a 
series  of  operations  rather  than  in  one  difficult  process, 
it  is  customary  for  the  union  to  determine  how  long  the 
apprentice  shall  serve  at  each  portion,  and  to  insist  that  he 
be  advanced  at  stated  intervals  from  one  part  to  the  other. 
A  typical  requirement  is  that  of  the  Saw  Smiths'  Union, 

'*  Very  satisfactory  results  have  been  obtained  by  the  Atkins  Com- 
pany, saw  manufacturers,  of  Indianapolis,  by  requiring  one  ex- 
perienced and  highly  skilled  journeyman  to  devote  his  entire  time 
to  the  apprentices.  They  are  grouped  together  apart  from  the 
journeymen  and  placed  at  work  under  his  immediate  supervision 
and  care.  When  sufficient  progress  has  been  made  and  the  boy 
possesses  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  trade,  he  is  placed  on  the  work 
with  the  journeymen.  Where  the  industry  permits,  this  seems  to 
be  an  admirable  arrangement,  for  such  a  plan  does  not  allow  the 
apprentice  to  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  journeyman.  Moreover, 
the  apprentice  is  sure  of  thorough  instruction. 

"  By-laws  of  Journeymen  Stone  Cutters'  Association,  1892,  Art. 
V,  sec.  8. 


579]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  97 

which  states  that  "  it  shall  be  the  right  of  every  apprentice, 
and  he  shall  also  be  required  to  learn  all  branches  of  anvil 
work  done  in  the  shop  in  which  he  is  employed."^*  The 
United  Hatters  are  mo;:e  specific  for  they  demand  that  "  all 
apprentices  registered  for  finishing,  can  be  used  by  the 
employers  for  the  first  twelve  months  at  any  of  the  minor 
branches,  such  as  soft  hat  curling  or  ironing  machines  or 
plating,  and  the  second  year,  at  flanging;  but,  in  all  cases, 
they  must  serve  their  last  year  at  the  bench.  ...  If  regis- 
tered for  the  making  department,  after  being  instructed, 
they  shall  continue  for  the  space  of  nine  months  at  sizing, 
then  six  months  at  blocking,  then  six  months  at  stiffening. 
After  this  space  of  time,  employers  can  put  them  at  any 
branch  of  the  business  in  which  they  may  require  their 
services."^^  The  Window  Glass  Workers'  Association 
represents  a  trade  of  four  distinct  processes,  namely, 
gathering,  blowing,  cutting,  flattening ;  and  the  time  an 
apprentice  is  required  to  serve  at  each  trade  is  three  years ; 
but  usually  he  is  permitted  to  blow  after  having  served  three 
years  as  gatherer.  However,  from  lack  of  experience  in 
the  work,  he  must  begin  upon  small  sizes ;  and,  although 
he  receives  the  regular  rate,  his  income  is  smaller  than 
that  paid  to  the  journeyman.  \  New  York  corporation 
held  certain  patents,  and,  making  a  specialty  of  building 
chimneys,  applied  to  a  local  of  the  bricklayers'  union  for 
permission  to  take  on  an  apprentice.  The  local  refused, 
and  referred  the  matter  to  the  national  executive  board. 
This  body  also  refused  the  company  an  apprentice  on  the 
ground  that  the  boy  would  not  have  a  fair  opportunity  to 
gain  an  adequate  knowledge  of  bricklaying. 

No  uniform  rule  prevails  in  regard  to  testing  the  appren- 
tice's proficiency.  A  prominent  employer  complained  to  the 
present  writer  that  boys,  who  had  served  the  four  years  of 
apprenticeship   required  by  the  local  stone  cutters'  union. 


**  Official  Proceedings  of  the  Fourth  Annual  Convention,  Saw- 
Smiths'  Union  of  North  America,  IndianapoHs,  1902,  p.  12,  sec.  4. 

"United  Hatters  of  North  America,  New  York,  1903,  Art.  XI, 
sees.  5  and  6. 


q8  ApproiticesJiip  i)i  Auicricaii  Trade  Unions.       [s8o 

were  permitted  to  join  the  union  and  to  receive  the  same 
rate  of  wages  as  other  journeymen,  although  they  might 
have  spent  but  a  few  months  in  each  year  in  learning  the 
trade.  Other  unions  are  more  strict  in  this  regard,  requir- 
ing the  apprentice  to  serve  an  additional  year  if  found  in 
any  way  deficient.  The  agreement  between  the  Chicago 
builders  and  the  Chicago  building  trades  union  thus  pro- 
vides :  "  In  case  an  apprentice  at  the  end  of  his  term  of  four 
years  for  want  of  proper  instruction  in  his  trade  is  not  a 
proficient  workman,  and  if,  after  a  thorough  investigation, 
the  joint  arbitration  board  finds  that  the  contractor  to  whom 
he  had  been  apprenticed  did  not  give  the  proper  instruction 
and  opportunity  to  learn  the  trade,  he  may  be  required  to 
serve  another  year  with  whomsoever  he  and  the  joint  arbi- 
tration board  may  determine,  and  at  such  a  rate  of  wages, 
less  than  the  minimum  in  his  trade,  as  they  may  determine ; 
and  the  difference  between  said  rate  and  minimum  scale  in 
his  trade  shall  be  paid  through  the  joint  arbitration  boards 
by  the  contractor  to  whom  he  was  apprenticed."*"*  In  some 
cases  the  apprentice  is  required  to  present  a  diploma  or  a 
statement  of  proficiency  from  his  employer.  The  Baltimore 
bricklayers  provide :  "  An  employer  wishing  to  have  an  ap- 
prentice shall  make  application  in  writing  or  in  person  to 
the  union,  said  application  to  be  presented  by  the  boy  who 
wishes  to  be  taken  as  an  apprentice,  said  apprentice  to  serve 
the  term  of  four  years,  to  learn  the  art  of  bricklaying  or 
stone  masonry,  and  his  name  and  length  of  time  he  is  re- 
quired to  serve  shall  be  registered  in  the  book  provided  for 
that  purpose,  and  his  employer  furnished  with  a  certificate 
of  registration,  said  certificate  to  be  returned  to  the  union 
endorsed  by  the  employer  at  the  expiration  of  the  time  of 
apprenticeship."^^ 

Admission  of  Apprentice  to  the  Union. — Admission  to  the 
union  may  be  regarded  as  the  final  step  in  apprenticeship. 

"Agreement  between  Chicago  Builders'  Association  and  Local 
Union,  sec.  5. 

"See  Working  Code  between  tlic  P.ricklaycrs'  and  Masons'  Inter- 
nptional  Unions,  Nos.  i.  4,  and  5,  of  Baltimore,  Maryland,  for  the 
Years  1903  and  1904,  p.  8,  sec.  23. 


581]        Character  of  Apprenticeship  Regulations.  99 

Indeed,  apprentices  are  taught  unionism  along  with  the 
trade,  and  special  inducements  are  ofifered  to  secure  their 
entrance  into  the  union.  The  painters  provide :  "  Appren- 
tices in  the  last  year  of  their  service  shall  be  admitted  free 
of  charge  and  entitled  to  a  seat  in  the  union  without  a  vote 
and  be  free  from  all  dues  and  assessments.  On  completion 
of  their  apprenticeship,  they  shall  be  entitled  to  full  benefits 
and  all  rights  to  full  membership  by  conforming  to  Section 
I  of  this  article.  No  capitation  is  required  of  apprentices, 
but  in  cities  where  business  agents  are  employed,  local  unions 
may  charge  one  dollar  initiation  and  ten  cents  per  month 
dues."«- 

When  the  apprentice  is  received  into  the  union  as  an 
apprentice  member,  his  rights  are  less  than  those  of  jour- 
neymen members,  he  pays  less  in  dues  and  receives  smaller 
benefits.  For  example,  the  jewelry  workers  will  receive  as 
members  all  apprentices  over  sixteen  years  of  age  upon  pay- 
ment of  one  dollar  and  a  half,  which  is  one  half  of  the  mini- 
mum initiation  fee  for  journeymen.  The  dues  of  appren- 
tices are  one  half  the  regular  dues,  but  such  members  may 
not  vote  nor  speak  except  to  bring  complaint  or  to  ask  for 
information.  Also  they  are  entitled  to  one  half  of  the  bene- 
fits received  by  regular  members.  At  the  conclusion  of 
their  apprentice  term,  they  are  received  as  full  members 
without  any  additional  initiation  fee. 

"  Constitution  of  the  Brotherhood  of  Painters,  Decorators,  and 
Paperhangers  of  America  (Lafayette,  Ind.),  Art.  VII,  sec.  8. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules. 

The  apprenticeship  system  in  nearly  all  the  unions  is  un- 
satisfactory. Side  by  side  with  the  capable  mechanic,  a 
great  number  of  incompetents  are  found  in  the  trades.  This 
condition  may  be  attributed  to  three  general  causes :  (a) 
the  large  influence  of  local  unions  in  determining  appren- 
ticeship rules;  (b)  the  effect  of  changes  in  business  organi- 
zation and  industrial  technique;  (c)  the  disregard  of  ap- 
prenticeship rules  both  by  employers  and  by  the  unions. 
Each  of  these  influences  will  be  briefly  considered. 

(a)  The  character  of  some  trades,  notably  cigar  making 
and  the  building  trades,  as  has  been  noted,  makes  it  neces- 
sary to  leave  apprenticeship  rules  to  local  determination. 
This  policy  has  resulted  in  a  wide  range  of  treatment,  in 
many  cases  unwise  and  inadequate.  A  nicer  adjustment  of 
rules  to  local  conditions  has  been  secured,  but  many  local 
unions  have  been  unable  to  enforce  effective  apprenticeship 
regulations.  Some  unions  make  no  pretense  of  maintaining 
an  apprenticeship  system,  and  others  make  rules  of  the  loos- 
est imaginable  description.  In  consequence,  the  large, 
strongly-organized  unions  observe  elaborate  apprenticeship 
codes ;  in  the  smaller  and  weaker  unions  in  the  same  trade 
a  brief  statement  of  a  few  lines  contains  all  that  is  said  in 
regard  to  apprentices,  and  even  these  provisions  are  often 
openly  neglected. 

(b)  The  provision  made  for  training  the  modern  appren- 
tice is,  in  most  cases,  inadequate  on  account  of  the  change 
in  industrial  and  business  methods.  Although  all  the  trades 
have  not  been  affected  by  the  introduction  of  machinery  and 
the  consequent  subdivision  of  the  trade,  yet  important  and, 
in  most  cases,  radical  changes  have  thus  been  introduced. 

The  effect  of  machinery  upon  the  apprenticeship  systems 

lOO 


583]        Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rides.  loi 

formerly  maintained  by  labor  unions  has  been  twofold.  ( i ) 
In  some  trades,  notably  those  of  the  boot  and  shoe  makers 
and  the  garment  workers,  the  machines  have  been  simplified 
and  the  trade  subdivided  to  such  an  extent  that  unskilled 
labor  has  largely  supplanted  skilled  workmen.  In  such  trades 
the  apprenticeship  system  has  almost  entirely  disappeared. 

(2)  The  same  effect  has  not  resulted  from  such  inventions 
as  the  linotype,  the  planer,  and  some  of  the  machines  used 
in  mill  work  and  in  the  large  machine  shops.  These  ma- 
chines require,  for  their  successful  operation,  the  skill  of  the 
trained  craftsman.  The  physical  strength  formerly  exerted 
by  the  workman  is  largely  supplied  by  steam  power.  In 
these  trades  only  trained  craftsmen  or  journeymen  in  the 
last  months  of  their  apprenticeship  are  permitted  to  take 
charge  of  the  machines.  The  care  that  must  be  given  the 
machine,  the  difficulties  in  learning  how  to  operate  it,  the 
cost  in  case  of  damage,  together  with  the  element  of  per- 
sonal danger  to  the  operator,  must  be  considered  when  de- 
termining the  effect  of  the  introduction  of  a  new  machine 
upon  the  craftsmen.  Many  of  the  finer  grades  of  work 
formerly  done  by  hand  are  now  done  almost  entirely  by 
machinery,  propelled  by  steam.  Yet  so  carefully  must  the 
machine  be  handled,  so  accurately  must  the  measurements 
be  taken,  and  so  nicely  must  the  machines  be  adjusted  that 
only  fully  experienced  men  are  intrusted  with  their  care. 
The  operator  or  tender  of  these  machines  has  a  task  to  per- 
form fully  as  difficult  as  that  of  his  predecessor  who  per- 
formed the  same  work  by  hand.  In  some  cases  the  ma- 
chine operator  has  even  a  more  difficult  and  responsible  task 
than  was  required  of  the  hand  worker,  so  that  he  is  required 
by  the  union  to  spend  the  same  number  of  years  in  learning 
the  trade  as  the  former,  but,  having  mastered  it,  he  is  able 
to  produce  far  more  rapidly  than  before.  The  pace  set  in 
the  modern  shop,  which  contains  much  costly  machinery,  is 
not  conducive  to  thorough  training,  since  the  chief  object, 
necessarily  so  because  of  keen  competition,  is  to  produce  the 
maximum  amount  in  the  shortest  time  at  the  minimum  cost ; 


I02        Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [584 

and.  as  long  as  the  employer  can  secure  competent  work- 
men, he  will  not  take  the  time  nor  expend  the  money  to 
train  apprentices.  The  result  has  been  that  in  many  in- 
stances the  apprentice  must  learn  the  trade  as  best  he  can. 

The  building  trades  may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  in- 
fluence on  apprenticeship  of  typical  changes  in  technique 
and  in  business  organization.  Machinery  has  been  exten- 
sively introduced  only  in  stone  cutting.''^  But  subdivision 
is  present  in  all  the  trades,  and,  in  all  of  them,  the  problem 
of  specialization  has  consequently  arisen.  The  workmen 
who  can  do  but  one  part  of  the  work  of  the  trade  is  rapidly 
increasing,  though  his  increase  is  constantly  deplored.  The 
specialized  workman  is  less  dependent  upon  the  instruction 
of  others.  In  case  of  business  depression  the  workman  who 
has  picked  up  his  trade  changes  to  another  more  readily  than 
the  all-round  workman  who  has  spent  years  learning  his  craft. 
Moreover,  he  does  not  share  the  feeling  of  respect  for  skilled 
work  that  inspires  the  true  mechanic.  In  none  of  the  build- 
ing trades,  however,  has  the  term  of  service  for  apprentices 
been  reduced  because  of  the  subdivision  of  the  trade.  On 
the  contrary,  it  has  resulted  in  an  urgent  demand  for  higher 
standards  of  workmanship."* 

'^  The  "planer"  is  used  extensively  in  large,  permanently  located 
shops.  It  is  not  confined  to  smoothing  the  stone,  but  is  capable  of 
cutting  different  designs  in  hard  or  soft  stone  by  simply  changing 
the  "  bit,"  which  can  be  easily  made  by  the  blacksmith.  The  machine 
is  of  great  weight,  run  by  steam  power  and  somewhat  expensive. 
It  can  be  operated  by  one  or  two  mechanics  and  will  do  the  work  of 
eight  or  ten  men.  The  pneumatic  tool  operated  by  compressed  air 
is  another  labor-saving  device  of  recent  date  in  this  trade.  Each 
cutter  supplied  with  one  is  able  to  make  much  more  rapid  progress 
in  rougher  work  with  less  expenditure  of  energy  than  with  the 
ordinary  mallet  and  chisel.  However,  it  is  not  to  be  supposed  that 
these  important  inventions  have  in  any  wise  revolutionized  the  trade. 
The  machines  render  the  best  results  in  the  hands  of  the  regular 
stone  cutters,  and  have  occasioned  no  change  in  the  apprenticeship 
rules  of  the  trade.  If  the  apprentice  desires  to  become  a  machine 
operator  and  his  employer  has  no  opening  for  him,  he  is  placed  on 
the  machine  during  the  last  year  or  six  months  of  his  term. 

**The  recent  change  of  material  used  in  the  structure  of  tlie  frame- 
work of  many  large  office  buildings  and  apartment  houses  has 
wrought  remarkable  changes  in  methods  of  construction,  and  has 
substituted  comparatively  unskilled  labor  for  highly  skilled  service. 
The  structural  iron  worker,  possessing  more  physical  strength  and 


585]        Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules.  103 

A  further  explanation  of  the  inadequate  training  of  the 
apprentice  in  the  building  trades  is  found  in  the  organization 
of  modern  building  operations.  The  erection  of  large  struc- 
tures is  done  in  the  main  by  large  construction  companies. 
A  typical  building  company  of  this  character  maintains  of- 
fices in  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States,  with  head- 
quarters in  New  York  City,  and  competes  for  business  in 
every  section  of  the  country.  Superintendents  are  sent  from 
place  to  place  to  take  charge  of  the  work  secured.  Each 
local  arranges  its  apprenticeship  rules  with  the  agents  of  the 
company  in  its  own  jurisdiction.  Should  business  not  jus- 
tify the  continuance  of  an  office  in  any  particular  field,  it  is 
closed  or  transferred  to  another  city.  One  of  the  chief  ele- 
ments in  the  award  of  every  contract  of  size  is  the  time  in 
which  it  can  be  executed,  and  the  keenest  rivalry  exists 
among  the  several  offices.  Every  condition  is  thus  unfavor- 
able to  the  maintenance  of  apprenticeship  regulations.  The 
manager  of  the  office  is  constantly  seeking  new  business  for 
his  company,  and  has  little  concern  for  the  work  in  progress. 
The  superintendent,  sent  out  by  the  company  to  take  charge 
of  the  work,  goes  from  place  to  place  as  orders  are  received 
from  headquarters,  and  is  only  concerned  with  the  problem 
of  getting  the  building  completed  in  the  shortest  time  at  the 
least  cost.  The  foreman  occupies  much  the  same  relation  to 
the  superintendent  as  the  latter  does  to  the  company.  He 
must  keep  his  men  moving  or  lose  his  position.  The  individ- 
ual journeyman  must  satisfy  his  foreman  or  be  discharged, 
and  has  little  if  any  time  to  instruct  boys.  In  fact,  there  is 
no  personal  tie  or  intimate  relation  between  the  beginner  and 
those  who  have  charge  of  the  work.  The  boy  is  simply  not 
wanted,  for  no  large  contractor  desires  apprentice  labor 
merely  because  it  can  be  secured  at  a  low  wage.  The  time 
consumed  in  teaching  the  trade  to  beginners  would  cause  a 

daring  than  real  technical  ability  and  skill,  has  supplanted  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  the  trained  bricklayer,  stone  mason  and  carpenter.  With 
the  introduction  of  ferro-concrete  as  a  building  material,  the  super- 
intendent and  foremen,  aided  by  hatchet  and  saw  carpenters  and 
ordinary  laborers,  are  able  to  construct  the  entire  frame-work  of 
the  building. 


104        Approiiiccship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [5S6 

delay  in  work,  more  expensive  than  the  sum  saved  on  wages. 
Indeed,  the  apprentice  is  physically  in  the  way  on  a  large 
building,  where  all  work  must  be  done  in  order  and  on  time. 
Under  the  indenture  system,  the  contractor  was  supposed  to 
make  a  sacrifice  during  the  first  part  of  the  apprentice  term, 
as  the  boy  was  unable  to  pay  his  way.  This  sacrifice  is 
required  to  a  far  greater  extent  under  the  present  system  ; 
and  the  contractor,  hard  pressed  by  competition,  is  unwilling 
to  make  it. 

Much  work  in  the  building  trades  is  still  done  by  small 
contractors.  Every  city  of  size  has  many  of  them.  Often 
conducting  non-union  establishments,  they  receive  more  ap- 
prentices than  are  allowed  in  union  shops.  The  work  per- 
formed by  this  class  of  contractors  is  less  hurried  in  time 
and  less  precise  in  quality,  and  will  usually  permit  of  boy 
labor  under  the  direction  of  a  skilled  foreman.  Many  learn 
the  trade  in  these  small  shops.  In  fact,  it  is  from  the  num- 
ber who  thus  "  pick  up  "  the  trade,  and  from  those  who  learn 
it  in  small  cities  and  in  rural  districts,  as  well  as  from  that 
smaller  number  who  have  served  a  formal  term  of  appren- 
ticeship, that  the  demands  of  the  larger  employers,  who  re- 
quire a  better  class  of  workmen  and  pay  the  highest  wages, 
are  met. 

(c)  The  apprenticeship  rules  nominally  in  force  are  often 
wholly  disregarded  by  both  union  and  employer.  In  fact, 
because  the  employer  cannot  control  his  apprentices  as  un- 
der the  indenture  system,  many  apprentices  leave  the  shop 
where  they  have  learned  the  trade  and  seek  employment 
elsewhere.  The  apprenticeship  system,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
esteemed  by  the  union  not  only  as  a  thing  desirable  in  itself, 
but  also  as  a  device  for  carrying  out  larger  policies.  The 
old  requirement  for  union  membership  was  the  completion 
of  a  term  of  apprenticeship,  l)ut,  in  most  cases,  this  is  no 
longer  a  requisite.  If  the  applicant  is  able  to  command  the 
standard  rate  of  wages,  he  will  experience  little  difficulty  in 
gaining  admittance  to  the  union,  regardless  of  the  way  in 
which  he  has  acquired  his  skill.     In  fact,  many  crude  work- 


587]        Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules.  105 

men  first  join  the  union  and  gain  the  greater  part  of  knowl- 
edge of  the  trade  afterwards.  The  present  poHcy  of  the 
unions  in  trades  where  it  is  impossible  to  secure  efifective 
enforcement  of  apprenticeship  rules  is  to  get  every  work- 
man at  the  trade  into  the  union.  When  an  applicant  of 
doubtful  ability  applies  for  membership,  the  question  con- 
sidered is  not  when  and  where  did  he  serve  his  apprentice- 
ship, but  will  he  do  less  harm  to  the  cause  inside  or  outside 
of  the  union ;  and  upon  the  answer  to  this  question  largely 
depends  his  acceptance  or  rejection.  During  the  time  of 
strike  the  union  has  no  hesitation  in  sacrificing  any  of  its 
requirements  for  admission  and  even  in  offering  special  in- 
ducements to  workmen  to  join  the  union  in  order  to  gain 
accessions  and  to  win  the  strike. ^^ 

For  several  years  the  Glass  Bottle  Blow-ers'  International 
Union  waged  a  continuous  and  bitter  warfare  against  cer- 
tain non-union  firms  in  New  Jersey.  During  this  time  the 
regular  apprenticeship  rules  were  constantly  sacrificed  that 
they  might  induce  the  w^orkmen  to  withdraw  from  these 
unfair  shops.  Urged  by  representatives  of  the  union,  many 
men  and  boys  were  induced  to  leave  the  non-union  shops, 
were  received  as  members  of  the  union,  and  sent  elsewhere 
to  work  at  the  regular  standard  wage ;  or,  in  case  employ- 
ment could  not  be  found,  they  were  supported  temporarily 
by  the  union.  An  ex-member  of  the  executive  committee 
of  the  Glass  Bottle  Blowers'  Union  showed  the  present 
writer  a  list  containing  the  names  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen 

"A  business  agent  of  the  wood  workers'  union  of  Indianapolis 
stated  that  not  only  would  such  possible  "  strike  breakers "  be 
received  into  his  union  free  of  cost,  but  that  transportation  would 
be  provided,  in  order  that  the}'  might  go  elsewhere  to  work.  It  is  a 
well-known  fact  that  the  non-union  men  gotten  together  by  an 
employer  during  a  strike  may  gradually  find  their  way  into  the 
ut;ion  after  difficulties  are  adjusted.  During  recent  conferences 
between  representatives  of  the  Iron  ]\Iolders'  Union  and  National 
Defense  Association  in  regard  to  the  apprentice  question,  it  was 
admitted  by  both  parties  that  previous  to  the  formation  of  agree- 
ments the  frequency  of  strikes  supplied  a  large  number  of  workmen. 
After  the  agreement  went  into  effect,  the  number  of  strikes  was 
greatly  reduced,^  and  the  supply  of  workmen  from  this  source  was  so 
seriously  diminished  that  the  legitimate  needs  of  the  trade  necessi- 
tated an  increase  in  the  number  of  apprentices. 


io6        .Ipprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [588 

men  and  two  hundred  and  thirty-one  boys  whom  he  had 
persuaded  to  leave  the  non-union  shops.  These  blowers, 
many  of  whom  had  been  at  the  trade  but  a  few  months,  were 
made  full-fledged  members  of  the  unions  and  supported  by 
that  body  until  employment  could  be  secured  elsewhere  for 
them.  However,  as  these  men  and  boys  were  often  sent  far 
away  from  the  New  Jersey  shops  for  employment,  and  since 
they  did  not  possess  ability  and  skill  sufficient  to  command 
the  union  rate  in  first-class  shops,  it  is  probably  true  that  the 
incompetent  ones  were  soon  discharged  by  their  employers 
and  doubtless  finally  dropped  their  membership  in  the  union. 
Such  flagrant  abuses  of  the  apprenticeship  regulations  are 
justified  by  the  union  as  "  emergency  measures,"  but  the 
"  strike  and  emergency  workmen  "  often  prove  to  be  unde- 
sirable members. 

The  most  promising  tendency  in  the  direction  of  bettering 
the  conditions  of  apprenticeship  is  found  in  the  fact  that 
apprenticeship  regulations  are  in  an  increasing  number  of 
cases  formed  by  joint  agreement  between  the  employer  and 
the  union,  and  not,  as  formerly,  by  the  union  or  the  employer 
alone.  With  perhaps  a  few  exceptions,  this  change  in  the 
method  of  framing  laws  has  brought  about  no  radical  change 
in  the  character  of  the  rules  themselves.  The  old  apprentice- 
ship regulations  of  the  union  have  ordinarily  become  the 
basis  for  new  ones  in  the  agreement,  or  they  have  been  ac- 
cepted in  their  entirety  by  employers.  The  acceptance  of 
the  agreement  by  employers  and  unions  tends  to  concentrate 
the  best  thought  of  both  parties  upon  the  subject,  with  the 
result  that  in  many  instances  elaborate  and  efficient  rules 
have  been  jointly  enacted  and  enforced.  A  typical  agree- 
ment between  employers'  associations  and  unions,  such  as 
exists  in  many  large  cities,  covers  the  following  points : 

I.  Time  of  Beginning,  the  I>ength  of  Term,  and  Quali- 
fications of  the  Apprentice :  The  qualifications  here  referred 
to  are  in  the  main  moral  and  educational,  and  as  a  rule  are 
of  slight  importance. 


589]        Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules.  107 

2.  Obligations  of  the  Apprentice :  Every  regular  appren- 
tice must  agree  to  render  continuous  service  as  provided  by 
the  rules,  and  furthermore  to  accept  all  other  conditions 
specified  throughout  the  agreement. 

3.  Agreements  of  Employers :  Every  person  permitted  to 
receive  apprentices  binds  himself  to  furnish  competent  in- 
struction and  to  give  the  boy  ample  opportunity  for  learning 
the  trade  during  the  latter's  term  of  service. 

4.  Registering  Apprentices :  Each  organization  keeps  a 
complete  record  of  all  apprentices.  A  beginner  registered 
under  such  circumstances  is  generally  given  a  card  by  the 
joint  committee,  which  attests  the  fact  that  he  is  a  properly 
registered  apprentice. 

5.  Limitation  of  Apprentices :  Practically  all  apprentice- 
ship agreements  provide  for  a  uniform  ratio  of  beginners  to 
journeymen.  In  some  industries  extensive  investigations 
have  been  made ;  and,  as  far  as  possible,  a  fair  and  adequate 
ratio  has  been  adopted. 

6.  Supervision  of  Apprentice :  Perhaps  the  chief  advan- 
tage secured  for  the  apprentice  through  the  agreement  is  the 
provision  usually  made  for  his  supervision  and  control  dur- 
ing his  term.  Where  both  sides  are  strongly  organized, 
they  mutually  watch  each  other  and  compel  a  strict  enforce- 
ment of  the  agreement.  This  control  of  apprentices  is  given 
to  the  joint  committee,  who  consider  all  questions  arising 
and  exercise  judicial  functions  in  hearing  appeals  or  settling 
disputes.  In  some  cases  this  committee  is  given  power  to 
cancel  the  apprenticeship,  to  transfer  apprentices  in  case  of 
death  or  removal  of  employer,  or  to  discharge  them  for  any 
other  reason. 

7.  Rights  of  the  Employer :  In  case  the  employer  becomes 
dissatisfied  with  the  apprentice  because  of  inability,  laziness 
or  unwillingness  upon  the  part  of  the  boy  to  render  faithful 
services  or  for  other  just  cause,  he  may  appeal  to  the  joint 
committee,  which  has  the  power  to  discharge  the  apprentice 
if  the  charges  are  proved. 

8.  Rights  of  Apprentice :  The  apprentice,  on  his  part,  has 


io8        Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [590 

the  privilege  of  carrying  any  grievance  against  his  employer 
to  the  joint  committee. 

9.  Pay  of  Apprentice :  Previous  to  the  formation  of  agree- 
ments the  apprenticeship  regulations  were,  in  the  main, 
formed  entirely  by  the  union ;  but,  in  a  great  majority  of 
cases,  the  employers  and  apprentices  were  unrestricted  in 
adjusting  the  rate  of  wages.  In  fact,  the  fixing  of  wages 
for  the  apprentice  by  the  union  is  comparatively  a  recent 
development,  which  has  been  accelerated  by  the  growth  of 
the  agreement. 

10.  End  of  Apprenticeship  Term :  At  the  conclusion  of 
the  prescribed  term  the  employer  must  notify  the  joint  com- 
mittee. The  employers'  organization  and  the  union  are  noti- 
fied. If  the  agreement  has  been  fairly  observed,  the  appren- 
tice is  given  a  certificate,  and  is  recognized  as  a  journeyman. 

Agreements  relative  to  apprenticeship,  up  to  the  present 
time,  have  been  almost  entirely  local.  The  most  notable 
exceptions  are  the  agreements  of  the  Iron  Molders'  Union, 
the  Glass  Bottle  P.lowers'  Union  and  the  Window  Glass 
Workers'  Union.  In  these  trades  the  apprenticeship  rules 
are  formed  by  an  agreement  between  the  international  unions 
and  the  employers'  associations. 

In  the  machinists'  trade,  where  employers  of  labor,  such 
as  railway  and  electric  road  companies,  operate  over  a  large 
territory,  it  not  infrequently  occurs  that  apprenticeship  is 
regulated  by  agreements  between  the  railroad  officials  on 
the  one  side  and  the  representatives  of  the  international 
union  on  the  other.  In  these  agreements  uniform  condi- 
tions are  provided  for  all  shops  of  the  company,  or,  as  is 
sometimes  the  case,  for  all  shops  within  certain  clearly 
defined  portions  of  the  road. 

The  nature  and  scope  of  such  formal  apprenticeship  agree- 
ments, even  in  the  same  trade,  vary  greatly  with  dift'erent 
localities.  Wherever  the  union  has  been  strong  and  has 
maintained  a  well-developed  system  while  acting  alone,  de- 
tailed apprenticeship  rules  covering  every  phase  of  the  ques- 
tion  are   usually   inserted.       In    other    localities   only   that 


59 1 ]        Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules.  109 

particular  phase  of  the  apprenticeship  question  which  has 
been  a  source  of  trouble  is  provided  for  in  the  agreement. 
For  example,  the  agreement  between  the  bricklayers'  union 
no.  4,  of  Missouri,  and  the  Contractors'  Association  con- 
tains the  single  provision  that  all  apprentices  shall  be  gov- 
erned by  the  laws  of  the  union.^**  An  agreement  at  Colum- 
bus, Ohio,  between  the  local  stone  masons'  union  and  the 
Master  Stone  Masons'  Association  has  but  one  short  article 
concerning  the  apprentice,  fixing  the  ratio  of  one  apprentice 
to  six  journeymen  and  the  term  of  service  at  three  years.^^ 
In  fact,  the  typical  form  of  apprenticeship  agreement  among 
the  smaller  unions  is  either  concerned  with  regulating  the 
number  of  apprentices  that  may  be  taken  or  with  providing 
some  form  of  training  for  beginners.  In  agreements  of  this 
nature  little,  if  any,  provision  is  made  for  enforcing  the 
apprenticeship  rules,  and,  as  a  rule,  they  are  rarely  more 
efifective  than  the  apprenticeship  regulations  formerly  main- 
tained by  the  union.  Even  in  more  formal  agreements  no 
uniformity  as  to  terms  exists  among  the  locals.  In  the  gran- 
ite cutting  industry  the  joint  agreement  of  1900  at  Rocklin, 
Cal.,  provided  for  a  ratio  of  one  apprentice  to  eight  journey- 
men."^ At  Waldboro,  Me.,  for  the  same  year,  one  appren- 
tice was  allowed  for  every  ten  journeymen  cutters.''''  At 
Vinal  Haven,  Me.,  one  apprentice  to  twelve  journeymen  was 
permitted, ^°^  while  the  agreement  for  1902  at  Milford,  N.  H., 
allowed  only  one  apprentice  to  each  fourteen  cutters. ^"^ 
Such  variations  occur  to  a  much  greater  extent  in  the  limi- 
tation of  apprentices,  but,  even  as  regards  age,  qualifications 
or  methods  of  training  beginners,  there  is  often  no  unifor- 
mity among  the  local  unions. 

In  the  more  elaborate  apprenticeship  agreements  found  in 

"  See  Thirty-seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  President  and  Secre- 
tary of  the  Bricklayers'  and  Masons'  International  Union,  for  the 
Term  Ending  December  i,  1902,  p.  92. 

''Ibid.,  p.  23. 

^  See  Bill  of  Prices  for  Cutting  Granite  in  Rocklin,  Cal.  (n.  p., 
1900). 

°°See  Bill  of  Prices  for  Waldboro,  Me.  (1900). 

""Bill  of  Prices  for  Vinal  Haven,  Me.,  dated  June  9  (n.  p.,  1900). 

"'Bill  of  Prices  for  Milford,  N.  H.,  1902-03,  p.  11,  sec.  4. 


no        Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.       [592 

some  large  cities,  all  regulations  for  beginners  at  the  trade 
are  prepared  by  joint  arbitration  boards.  The  apprentice- 
ship rules  formed  by  agreement  in  many  trades  in  New  York 
City  and  Chicago  cover  every  phase  of  the  apprentice  ques- 
tion, even  to  the  smallest  detail.  The  agreement  between  the 
Masons'  and  Builders'  Association  of  Chicago  and  the  local 
bricklayers'  and  stone  masons'  union  represents  one  of  the 
best  systems  of  apprenticeship  now  in  force  among  the  build- 
ing trades.^^2  j^  provides  that  apprentices  shall  not  be  pro- 
hibited by  any  union,  and  that  they  shall  not  be  amenable  to 
union  rules,  but  shall  at  all  times  be  under  the  control  of  the 
employers,  subject  to  the  rules  of  the  joint  arbitration  board. 
In  addition  to  the  usual  features  of  apprenticeship  agree- 
ments as  to  ratio,  age,  wages  and  probation  term,  an  impor- 
tant provision  is  the  requirement  that  all  apprentices  shall 
attend  school  during  certain  months  of  the  year.^°^  An  im- 
portant feature  of  the  agreement  is  the  provision  for  enforc- 
ing the  regulations  adopted.  When  a  grievance  arises  be- 
tween an  apprentice  and  an  employer  or  a  journeyman,  the 
point  at  issue  is  submitted  in  writing  to  the  presidents  of 
both  organizations.      Should  they  be  unable  to  agree,  the 

"^  See  apprenticeship  rules  in  the  "  Joint  Arbitration  Agreement 
between  the  Chicago  Masons'  and  Builders'  Association  and  the 
United  Order  of  American  Bricklayers"  and  Stone  Masons'  Union, 
No.  21,  of  the  Builders'  and  Masons'  International  Unions,  April 
I,  1903,  to  May  I,  1905." 

^"^  All  contractors  taking  on  apprentices  are  obliged  to  keep  them 
at  work  for  nine  consecutive  months  in  each  year.  During  the 
months  of  January,  February  and  March,  the  apprentice  must  attend 
a  technical  school  acceptable  to  the  joint  board.  As  evidence  that 
he  has  fulfilled  this  requirement,  the  apprentice  is  required  to  present 
a  certificate  from  the  school  before  he  is  permitted  to  begin  his 
work.  For  every  day  the  apprentice  is  tardy  or  guilty  of  disorderly 
conduct  at  school  lie  must  serve  an  additional  day  of  apprentice- 
ship without  pay.  P'or  each  case  of  failure  to  attend  school,  except 
for  good  excuse,  two  days'  service  without  pay  is  added  to  liis  term 
of  apprenticeship.  Any  contractor  who  prevents  his  apprentice  from 
attending  school  during  the  months  mentioned  is  fined  five  dollars 
per  day  for  each  day.  Likewise,  any  member  working  on  any  build- 
ing during  said  months  with  an  apprentice  is  also  fined  five  dollars 
for  each  day  he  works.  Furthermore,  any  contractor  who  fails  to 
provide  employment  for  his  apprentice  or  does  not  keep  him  at 
school  shall  pay  him  the  same  as  though  he  were  at  work  or  at 
school. 


593]        Estimate  of  Union  Apprenticeship  Rules.  1 1 1 

question  is  submitted  to  the  joint  arbitration  board.  In 
case  this  body  is  unable  to  reach  a  decision,  an  umpire  is 
called  in  to  sit  with  the  board  and  cast  the  deciding  vote. 
Both  organizations  have  agreed  to  compel  members  to  com- 
ply with  the  apprenticeship  rules  as  jointly  agreed  upon 
and  adopted. 


NDEX 


Actors'  National  Protective 
Union,  no  apprentice  sys- 
tem in,  540. 

Adams,  John,  on  Monroe's 
View,    144. 

Adams,  John  Quincy,  quoted, 
75 ;  on  Monroe  mission  and 
View,    144-145. 

Administered  state,  definition  of, 
348. 

Alcohol  in  Philippines,  Spanish 
government  control  of 
(1787-1862),  9,  12;  Ameri- 
can tax  on,  25 ;  revenue 
from,  42. 

Algiers,  treaty  of  U.  S.  with 
(1795),  Monroe's  part  in, 
87-88,  111-114. 

Allegiance,  nature  of,  344-345. 

Annapolis  and  Elkridge  Rail- 
road, Maryland's  aid  to, 
444- 

Annapolis  and  Potomac  Canal 
Company,  Maryland's  aid 
to,  437,  443. 

Apprentices  in  American  trade 
unions,  under  governmental 
regulation,  494-499 ;  those 
eligible  to  be,  494-495 ; 
length  of  training  of,  495; 
schooling  for,  496;  punish- 
ment for  offenses  com- 
mitted by,  496;  status  of, 
after  death  of  master,  496 ; 
limitation  of  number  of, 
496-497 ;  pledges  between 
masters  and.  497-498;  aban- 
donment of  indenture  for, 
498-499 ;  customary  rules 
for,  500-512;  rules  influ- 
enced by  large  numbers  of 
foreign  workmen,  500-502 ; 
and  by  simple  industrial 
conditions,  502-504 ;  limita- 
tion of  number  of  appren- 
tices, 504-508;  wages  of, 
508;  hours  of  labor  of,  509; 
relations  between  masters 
and,      509-510;      length      of 


training  of,  510-511;  trade- 
union  regulation  of,  513- 
523;  by  local  unions,  513- 
516,  520-521 ;  by  interna- 
tional unions,  516-520,  521- 
523;  regulation  of,  by  trade 
'  agreement,  524-534;  limita- 
tion by  trade  agreement  of 
number  of,  in  iron-mold- 
ing industry,  525-532,  533; 
extent  of  present  union 
regulation  of,  535-547; 
unions  having  no  system  of 
training  for,  535-540;  unions 
having  a  system,  540-545 ; 
partial  control  of  apprentices 
by  unions,  545-547;  regula- 
tion of,  548-552;  by  local 
unions,  54&-S50;  by  inter- 
national unions,  550-552 ; 
purposes  of  regulation  of 
apprentices.  553-556;  to  pro- 
vide workmen,  554;  to 
secure  fairly  equal  ability  in 
workmen,  555 ;  character  of 
regulations  of  apprentices, 
557-581 ;  entrance  upon 
training,  557-562;  age  of 
apprentices,  562-564 ;  term 
of  service  of,  564-571 ;  num- 
ber of,  571-575;  wage  of, 
575-577;  training  of,  577- 
580;  admission  of,  to  union, 
580-581 ;  estimate  of  union 
rules  for,  582-593;  unsatis- 
factory conditions,  582-588; 
promising  conditions,  588- 
593-. 
Apprenticeship  in  American 
Trade  Unions  (Motley), 
491-593 ;  governmental  regu- 
lation of,  494-499;  custom- 
ary rules  of,  500-512:  trade- 
union  regulation  of,  513- 
523;  determined  by  trade 
agreement,  524-534 ;  extent 
of  present  union  regulation 
of,  535-547;  regulation  of, 
and     its    purpose,     548-556; 


114 


Index. 


[596 


character  of  regulations  of, 

557-581  ;    estimate   of    union 

rules  of,  582-593. 
Assemblies  of  Maryland    (1642- 

49),    197,   213,   214,   215-216, 

231-240,  256-268. 
Attorneys  at  law  in  Md.,  tax  on 

(1822),  402. 
Auctioneers  in  Baltimore  and  in 

Md.,    tax    on     (1798-1907), 

400-401. 

Bakery  and  Confectionery  Work- 
ers' International  Union, 
character  of  apprentice 
regulations   in,   564. 

Baltimore,  Lord,  see  Calvert, 
Cecilius. 

Baltimore  and  Frederick  Turn- 
pike Company,  Maryland's 
aid  to,  428  (note). 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad, 
Maryland's  aid  in  the  build- 
ing of,  430-431,  432,  437, 
439,    440    (and    note),    446, 

47-2-473- 

Baltimore  and  Susquehanna 
Railroad,  Maryland's  aid  to, 
432-436,  441,  4727473- 

Baltimore  and  Washington  Rail- 
road, taxation  of  by  Md. 
(1832),  404-405;  Maryland's 
aid  in  building  of,  432,  434. 

Baltimore  and  Yorktown  Turn- 
pike Company,  Maryland's 
aid  to.  428  (note). 

Bank  of  England  stock  in  Md. 
(1733-1806),  382-383. 

Banks  in  Philippines,  tax  on,  26, 
32,  42 ;  in  Md.,  tax  on 
(1813-1848),  384-386,  404, 
405-406,   470-471. 

Barlow,  Joel,  and  treaty  of  U. 
S.  with  Algiers  (1795),  iii- 
113- 

Bayard,  Samuel,  on  Jay  treaty, 
122. 

Belligerent  community,  definition 
of,  348. 

"  Berkshire,"  in  iron-molding  in- 
dustry, 500,  504,  506,  516 
(note). 

Billiard-tables,  tax  on,  in  Md. 
(1798-1825),  401-402. 

Bills    of    credit    in    Md.     (1733- 


1789),  361,  366-368,  371,  373, 
382-383. 

Bodin,  on  the  state,  292,  295- 
300. 

Boghitchevitch,  quoted,  284. 

Boiler  Makers  and  Iron  Ship- 
builders, International  Bro- 
therhood of,  apprentices  in, 
562. 

Bond,  Beverly  W.,  jr.,  "The 
Monroe  Mission  to  France," 
55-150. 

Bonds,  tax  on,  in  Md.  (1S41- 
1847).  459-460. 

Bonfils,  H.,  quoted,  285,  315, 
320. 

Bookbinders,  International  Bro- 
therhood of,  character  of 
apprentice  regulations  in, 
559,  562. 

Boot  and  shoe  industry,  no  ap- 
prentice  system   in,   538-539. 

Borel,  quoted,  290. 

Bozman,  J.  L.,  quoted,  157 
(notes),  229,  233,  253 
(notes),  256. 

Brainthwait,  Wm.,  170,  174-176, 
177   (note),  194,  196. 

Brent,  Giles,  157,  158,  166-167, 
169,  170,  172,  173,  174-176, 
177,  192,  196-197,  204-205, 
253. 

Brent,  Mrs.  Margaret,  188,  204- 
205,  210,  212,  219,  221-224, 
233,  239,  241,  250,  257. 

Brewery  Workmen,  United,  no 
uniform      apprentice      rules, 

551- 
Bricklaying  industry,  apprentices 
in,  521-522;  non-union 
workers  in,  545  (note)  ; 
regulation  of  apprentices  in, 
by  international  union,  553- 

.  554- 

Bridge  and  Structural  Iron 
Workers'  Union,  no  appren- 
tice system  in,  536. 

British  property  in  Md.,  revenue 
from  confiscation  of  (1780- 
1790),  369,  381. 

Brock,  Father  John,  206  (note). 

Brokers,  tax  on  in  Md.  (1842), 
463-464. 

Broom  and  Whisk  Makers' 
Union,    International,    char- 


597] 


Index. 


115 


acter  of  apprentice  regula- 
tions of,  558-559,  564,  575- 

Brownson,  quoted,  288. 

Building  trades,  regulation  of 
apprentices  by  local  unions 
of,  519,  520-522,  548,  550, 
582,  591,  592-593;  character 
of  regulations,  563,  564,  567- 
568,  569  (notes),  572,  574, 
576,  579,  580;  effect  on  ap- 
prenticeship system  of  ma- 
chinery and  specialization 
in,  584-586.  See  also  Brick- 
laying industry,  etc. 

Burgess,  quoted,  290. 

Burr,  Aaron,  on  Jay  treaty,  93. 

Business  tax  in  Philippines,  9- 
II,  30-32,  42. 

Calvert,  Cecilius  (Lord  Balti- 
more), 173-176,  207-210, 
216,  257-268. 

Calvert,  Charles,  quoted,  265- 
266. 

Calvert,  Leonard,  157,  172-173, 
174,  179-182,  192-194,  195, 
196-197,  213,  215,  217-222. 

Calvo,  quoted,  314. 

Car  Workers,  International  As- 
sociation of,  no  uniform  ap- 
prentice rules  in,  551. 

Carpentry,  apprentice  regula- 
tions in.  C17,  557;  character 
of  regulations,  564. 

Certificates  of  debt  in  Md. 
(1776-1785),  368,  371,  372. 

Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal, 
Maryland's  aid  in  the  build- 
ing of,  +27-432,  434-439,  441, 
445-446,  472-473- 

Chinese  in  Philippines,  taxation 
of,  9. 

Churchman,  John,  quoted,  120. 

Cigar-making  industry,  simple 
industrial  conditions  in,  503 ; 
number  of  apprentices  in, 
505  (and  note)  ;  regulation 
of  apprenticeship  by  local 
unions  of,  519,  520-521,  582; 
character  of  regulations, 
565-566,  574,  577- 

Claiborne,  Wm.,  195-196,  211- 
212. 

Collateral  inheritance  tax  in 
Md.   (1845),  462. 


Commercial  regulations,  U.  S. 
and  France  (1794),  66-69. 

Commissions  of  executors,  trus- 
tees and  receivers,  tax  on, 
in  Md.   (1845),  462-463. 

Conciliation,  used  in  apprentice- 
ship regulation,  524-534, 

Confederation,  definition  of,  347. 

Consular  service  of  U.  S.  in 
France,  Monroe  and,  73, 
88-90. 

Copley,  Thomas,  206   (note). 

Cornwallis,  Thos.,  156,  157,  166- 
170,  173,  179-186,  202,  207- 
209. 

Corporation  taxes  in  Philippines, 
23;  in  Md.  (1813-1840), 
385-386,  404-406. 

County  assessments  in  Md. 
(1821-1827),  396-398. 

Crane,  Robert  T.,  "  The  State 
in  Constitutional  and  Inter- 
national  Law,"  277-348. 

Currency,  change  of  basis  of,  in 
Porto  Rico,  17;  in  Philip- 
pines, 17-18. 

Debt   of   Md.    (1777-1848),   361, 

37'^-372,    374,    378-380,    419- 

454,  455-475,  481. 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  Canal, 

Maryland's  aid  to,  4-26. 
Dependent   nation,   definition  of, 

346. 
Documentary     stamp     taxes     in 

Philippines,      lo-ii,      26-28, 

32,  42. 

Eastern  Shore  Railroad  Com- 
pany,    Maryland's     aid     to, 

437,  443- 
Edwards,     Enoch,     on     IMonroe 

mission,  I33-I35- 
Elastic  goring  weaving  industry, 

apprentice  system  in,  544. 
England  and  Jay  treaty,  63,  117; 

and    treaty    of    U.    S.    with 

Algiers   (i795),  ii3- 
Executors,    tax   on   commissions 

of,  in  Md.    (1845),  462-463. 
Exemptions     from     taxation     in 

Philippines,  31-33. 
Expenditures     of     Md.      (1790- 

1848),  375-376,  386-389,  392- 

393,  412-419,  480. 
Exports,        from        Philippines, 


ii6 


Index. 


[598 


Spanish  restriction  of,  8,  12; 
restriction  of,  to  U.  S.,  12, 
14-16;  advantage  of  free 
trade  for,  43-45- 
Extraterritorialitj',  fiction  of, 
330,   340. 

Fauchet,  RL,  and  Monroe  mis- 
sion, 85,  97,  105,  106,  145. 

Federal  state,  definitions  of,  287- 
290. 

Fee-system  in  Md.  (1824-1836), 
375,  406-407,  413. 

Fenwick,  Cuthbert,  155,  260 
(and  note),  261. 

Financial  History  of  Maryland, 
1 789-1 848  (Hanna),  357- 
479;  during  Revolution,  359- 
372 ;  treasury  confusion 
after  war,  370-372 ;  period 
of  surplus  financiering 
(1789-1816),  373-393;  of  in- 
direct taxation  (1817-1841), 
394-419;  internal  improve- 
ments and  the  state  debt, 
420-454;  suspension  of  in- 
terest payments  (1841-1848), 
455-475;  tables  of  receipts, 
expenditures,  etc.,  478-481. 
See  also  Table  of  Contents, 
355- 

Fisher,  Father  Philip,  205  (and 
note),  251. 

Fleet,  Henry,  171-172. 

Force,  an  essential  element  of 
the  state,  326-329. 

Forest  products  in  Philippines, 
tax  on,  9-1 1,  29-30,  42. 

France,  receives  Monroe  on  his 
mission,  61-62 ;  commercial 
regulations  with  U.  S.,  66- 
69;  and  navigation  of  Mis- 
sissippi and  southern  boun- 
dary of  U.  S.,  69-73,  82-86; 
attitude  of,  toward  Jay 
treaty,  76-82,  92-101,  103- 
iio,  1 15-126;  and  Louisiana, 
85,  119;  U.  S.  consuls  in, 
88-90;  alleges  violation  of 
treaty  of  1778  by  U.  S., 
105-110;  and  treaty  of  U.  S. 
with  Algiers  (1795),  87-88. 
111-113.  See  also  Table  of 
contents,  53. 

Freund,  quoted,  284. 

Funding    law,    of    Md.     (1784), 


372;     of    Congress     (1790), 
378-380. 

Gerard,  Thos.,  174-176,  192,  253. 

Glass-blowing  industry,  regula- 
tion of  apprenticeship  by 
international  union,  519,  550; 
character  of  regulations, 
572-573,  577;  disregard  of 
regulations,  587-588.  See 
also  Window  glass  workers, 
etc. 

Government,  Rousseau  on,  307 ; 
location  of  sovereignty  in, 
325 ;  de  facto,  definition  of, 
3.48. 

Granite-cutting  industry,  non- 
union workers  in,  545 
(note)  ;  apprentice  regula- 
tions in,  571,  591. 

Greene,  Thos.,  165,  192,  219-253, 
260,  261. 

Grotius,  on  international  law, 
312-313,  quoted,  315,  316, 
320. 

Ground-rents  in  Md.,  tax  on 
(1841-1847),  461. 

Guaranteed  state,  definition  of, 
347- 

Hall,  C.  C,  quoted,  265. 
Hall,  W.  E.,  quoted,  284-285. 
Hamilton,    Alexander,   on    Mon- 
roe mission,    137. 
Hammond,    John,    quoted,    214- 

215- 

Hanel,  quoted,  289. 

Hanna,  Hugh  S.,  "  A  Financial 
History  of  Maryland,  1789- 
1848,"  357-479- 

Harper,  Robert  Goodloe,  on 
Monroe  mission,  132-133, 
137-  . 

Hat-making  industry,  appren- 
tices in,  510-511;  non-union 
workers  in,  545  (note)  ; 
ratio  of  apprentices  in,  553 
(note)  ;  character  of  ap- 
prentice regulations  in,  559, 
570,  572,  579- 

Hawkers,  tax  on,  in  Md.  (1777- 
1840),  401. 

Hicliborn,  Benj.,  on  Monroe 
mission,  80. 

Hill,  Edward,  213,  224-227. 

llobbes,  on  the  state,  301-306. 


599] 


Index. 


117 


Hord,  John  S.,  "  Internal  Taxa- 
tion    in     the     Philippines," 

7-45- 
Humphreys,    David,    and    treaty 
of  U.  S.  with  Algiers  (1795), 
?,  111-114. 


Ide,     Henry     C,     and     internal 

taxation  in   Philippines,   14- 

16,   18-24. 
Income    taxes    in    Md.     (1841), 

460-463. 
Indenture   in   American   appren- 
ticeship, 495-499- 
Independence,     its     relation     to 

sovereignty,     316,     319-320; 

nature  of,  33^338. 
Independent     nation,     definition 

of,  346-347. 
Indians,     in     Maryland     (1642- 

1649),  156-157,  167-172,  227, 

244. 
Ingle,     Richard,     165,      182-188, 

198-210,  214,  228-229,  253. 
Inheritance    tax    in    Philippines, 

23- 

Insurance  companies,  tax  on  for- 
eign, in  Md.  (1840-1845), 
405,  464. 

Insurance  companies  in  Philip- 
pines, tax  on,  29,  32,  42. 

Insurance  policies,  tax  on,  in 
Md.   (1845),  465. 

Internal  improvements  in  Md. 
(1826-1840),  395-396,  420- 
446.  447-449- 

Internal  taxation  in  the  Philip- 
pines (Hord),  7-45.  See 
also   Philippines. 

International  law,  origin  and 
history  of,  311-314;  is  it 
law?     314;     "persons"     of, 

314-315- 
Iron-molding  industry,  appren- 
tices in,  before  formation  of 
unions,  500,  504,  506 ;  after 
formation  of  unions,  516 
(note),  519-520;  agreement 
with  National  Defense  As- 
sociation concerning  appren- 
tices in,  524-532.  533 ;  regu- 
lation of  apprentices  by  in- 
ternational union  in,  550, 
552;  character  of  regula- 
tions,  577. 

Jay,     John,     minister     to     Great 


Britain,  57 ;  instructions,  59 ; 
news  of  treaty  received  in 
France,  76-82;  opposition  to 
treaty  in  U.  S.,  93,  99; 
Monroe's     view     of     treaty, 

146-147- 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  on  Jay  treaty, 
61,  122;  on  Monroe  mission, 
138 ;  on  Monroe's  View,  142 ; 
on  "  Scipio's  "  attack,  143. 

Jellincek,  quoted,  290. 

Jesuits  in  Maryland  (1642-49), 
175-176,  205-206. 

Jewelry  workers,  apprentices  in, 
regulated  by  local  unions, 
548;  character  of  regula- 
tions, 581. 

Kelke,  quoted,  286-287. 
Kent     Island     (Md.),     195-196, 
210-212. 

Laband,  quoted,  289. 

Lace  Curtain  Operatives,  ap- 
prentices in,  544  (note),  562, 
576. 

Langdon,    John,    on    Jay    treaty, 

93- 
Law,    definition    and    nature    of, 

322-327. 
Lawrence,    T.    J.,    quoted,    315, 

319,  320. 
Leased    territory,    definition    of, 

347- 

Lee,  Charles,  on  Monroe  mis- 
sion, 131. 

Le  Fur,   quoted,  283,  287-288. 

Lewger,  John,  1 71-172,  174-175, 
176,  179-181,  184-188,  192, 
253. 

License  taxes  in  Md.  (1777- 
1848),  361,  374-375,  398-403, 
463-464. 

Limited  Partnership  Law  of  Md. 
(1826),  403. 

Livingston,  Robert,  on  Jay 
treaty,  93-94,  121 ;  on  Mon- 
roe mission,  137-138. 

Locke,  on  the  state,  306. 

Lockouts,  status  of  apprentice 
during,  570. 

Lotteries  in  Md.,  tax  on  dealers 
in  (1819),  402;  .  tax  on 
(1817),      407-410;      (1845), 

465-  . 
Lottery    in    Philippines,    revenue 
from,  9-10. 


ii8 


Index 


[600 


IMcHenry,  James,  on  Monroe's 
View,    144. 

]\Iachine  Printers'  Beneficial 
Association,  character  of 
apprentice      regulations      in, 

564- 

Machinists  and  blacksmiths, 
simple  industrial  conditions 
among,  503 ;  limitation  of 
apprentices  among,  508. 

Machinists,  International  Asso- 
ciation of,  regulation  of  ap- 
prenticeship by,  551-55-2, 
590. 

Mclhvraith,  quoted,  285. 

McKinley,  Wm.,  and  Porto 
Rican  trade  duties,  13. 

Madison,   James,  on  Jay  treaty, 

93- 

Maine,  Sir  Henry,  quoted.  320. 

Malta,  Knights  of,  ask  land  in 
U.  S.,  88. 

Maryland  Canal  Company, 
Maryland's  aid  to,  437-439, 
443- 

Maryland  during  the  English 
Civil  Wars.  Pt.  II.  (Stein- 
er),  155-268;  relations  with 
other  colonies,  156,  169; 
with  Indians,  156-157,  167- 
172,  227,  244;  deeds,  suits, 
etc.,  158-166,  177-182,  188- 
192,  194,  196,  198,  210-21 1, 
214,  215  (note),  217-219, 
221-224,  229-231,  238-251 ; 
Jesuits  in,  175-176,  205- 
206;  Ingle's  rebellion,  182- 
188,  198-210,  21/1 ;  regarding 
laws,  192-193,  214,  228-229, 
253;  Assemblies,  197,  213, 
214,  215-216,  231-240,  256- 
268;  Conditions  of  Planta- 
tion, 254-255 ;  religious  tol- 
eration, 255-256,  264-268. 

Maryland,  financial  history  of, 
1789-1848  (Hanna)  ;  during 
Revolution,  359-372;  treas- 
ury confusion  after  war, 
370-372 ;  period  of  surplus 
financiering.  37.3-393 ;  of  in- 
direct taxation,  394-419;  in- 
ternal improvements  and  the 
state  debt.  420-454;  suspen- 
sion of  interest  payments 
(1841-1848),  455-475:  tables 
of      receipts,      expenditures, 


etc.,  478-481.  See  also 
Table  of  Contents,  355. 

Mason,  S.  T.,  on  Jay  treaty,  93. 

Merchants  in  Md.,  tax  on 
(1820- I 832),  398-400. 

Merlin,  M.,  83. 

Metal  Polishers,  Buffers,  Platers, 
Brass  Molders,  Brass  and 
Silver  Workers'  Interna- 
tional Union,  apprentice 
regulations  in,  575-576. 

Mining  concessions  in  Philip- 
pines, tax  on,  30,  42. 

Mint  tax  in  Philippines,  9-10. 

Mississippi,  navigation  of,  and 
]\Ion  roe's  negotiation,  69-73 
82-86. 

Von  Mohl,  quoted,  288. 

Monarchomachen,  regarding  the 
state,  300-301. 

Monroe.  Jas.,  appointed  minister 
to  France,  56;  instructions, 
58-60;  received  in  France 
and  exceeds  instructions, 
61-62,  66;  negotiates  com- 
mercial regulations,  66-69; 
and  navigation  of  Missis- 
sippi and  southern  boundary 
of  U.  S.,  69-73,  82-S6 ;  rela- 
tions with  Paine,  73,  133, 
134.  135-1.36;  and  U.  S.  con- 
sular service  in  France,  73 ; 
and  Gouverneur  Morris,  74; 
gives  American  flag  to 
French  Convention,  74-75 ; 
troubles  with  France  over 
Jay  treaty,  76-82,  103-110, 
115-126;  treaty  with  Algiers 
(1795),  87-88,  111-114;  on 
Jay  treaty,  90-101,  146- 
147;  protects  Americans  in 
France,  114;  recalled,  121- 
126;  asks  reason  for  recall, 
127-128;  unofficial  explana- 
tions, 128-133;  accusations 
of  R.  G.  Harper  and  others, 
132-133.  T^37;  defense,  133- 
137;  his  View,  137-139,  142- 
146;  Washington's  criticism 
of  the  View,  139-142;  other 
criticisms,  142-145.  See 
also  Table  of  Contents,  53. 

Monroe  Mission  to  France, 
1 794-1 796  (Bond),  see  Jas. 
Monroe. 


6oi] 


Index. 


119 


Moore,    J.    B.,    quoted,    289-290, 

319. 

Morris,  Gouverneur,  recalled  as 
minister  to  France,  55 ;  asks 
passport  from  Monroe,  74. 

Moser,  quoted,  320. 

Motley,  James  M.,  "  Apprentice- 
ship in  American  Trade 
Unions,"  491-593. 

Musicians,  American  Federation 
of,  no  apprentice  system  in, 
540. 

Nation,  nature  of  a,  333-342. 
Nations,    classification    of,    345- 

348. 
Neale,  James,  155,   158,   174-176, 

192,  253. 
Negro,   free,   colonization  of  by 

Md.   (1826-1852),  413-415- 
Neutralized    state,   definition   of, 

347- 
Note-brokers    in    ]\Id.,    tax    on 

(1819),  402. 

Occupation  taxes  in  Philippines, 

31,  33,  42. 
Officers'    commissions     in     Md., 

tax  on   (1844),  465. 
Officers'    fees,    in    Md.,    tax    on 

(1824- I 844),  406-407,  462. 
Opium    in    Philippines,    Spanish 

government    control    of,    9; 

revenue  from,   10. 
Oppenheim,  quoted,  286. 

Paine,  Thomas,  and  Monroe,  73, 
.  133.  134,  135-136. 

Painters,  Decorators  and  Paper- 
hangers,  Brotherhood  of, 
apprentice  regulations  in, 
568,  573  (note),  581. 

Pattern-making  industry,  ap- 
prentice system  in,  543. 

Peddlers,  in  Md.,  tax  on  (1777- 
1840),  401. 

Pelet,  M.,  84,  86. 

Pen  and  Pocketknife  Grinders' 
and  Finishers'  National 
Union  of  America,  character 
of  apprentice  regulations  in, 
560. 

Penitentiary  in  Md.  (1805),  392- 
393,  416. 

People,  nature  of  a,  318-319, 
339-341- 


Personal     union,     definition    of, 

.  347; 
Philippine   Commission,   and  in- 
ternal   taxation,    11-17.    19- 

.  24- 

Philippines,  internal  taxation  in 
(Hord),  7-45;  Spanish  sys- 
tem, 7-10;  American  sys- 
tem, 10-24;  American  tax 
rates,  25-31 ;  exemptions,  31- 
33 ;  use  of  revenues,  3^,  42 ; 
bureau  of  internal  revenue, 
33-36;  41 ;  opposition  to 
taxation,  37-40;  amount  col- 
lected, 42 ;  cost  of  collec- 
tion and  refunds,  42-43 ;  ad- 
vantage of  American  free 
trade,  43-45 ;  bibliography, 
.45- 

Phillimore,  Sir  Robert,  quoted, 
315- 

Piano  and  Organ  Workers'  In- 
ternational Union,  apprentice 
regulations  of,  565. 

Pickering,  Timothy,  and  Monroe 
mission,  100,  104,  109-IIO, 
118-121,   127-129,   144. 

Pinckney,  Chas.  C,  121,  124, 
125. 

Pinckney,   Thos.,   86,  98. 

Plantagenet,  Beauchamp,  quoted, 
168-169,  206  (note),  211 
(note). 

Plumbers'  Associations,  Master, 
set  probation  period  for  ap- 
prentices, 561. 

Plumbers,  United  Association  of 
Journeymen,  apprenticeship 
regulation  by,  550  (note)  ; 
restricts  number  of  appren- 
tices and  helpers,  556;  char- 
acter of  apprentice  regula- 
tions in,  564,  573  (note), 
577- 

Poll-tax,  in  Philippines,  7-1 1, 
28,  42;  in  Md.,  prohibited 
by  Bill  of  Rights,  377. 

Port  duties  in  Aid.  (1776-1789), 
361,  362,  371,  373. 

Porto  Rico,  internal  taxation  in, 
13-14- 

Potomac  Company,  of  Aid.  and 
Va.,  history  of,  427. 

Print-cutting  industry,  appren- 
tice system  in,  544. 

Printing    trade,    apprentices    in, 


I20 


Index. 


[602 


before  formation  of  unions, 
500,  501-502,  506-508,  509- 
510;  after  formation  of 
unions,  513-515,  55i ;  char- 
acter of  apprentice  regula- 
tions in,  572,  574;  effect  on 
apprenticeship  of  invention 
of  machinery,  583-584.  See 
also  Typographical  Associa- 
tions, etc. 

Probation  in  apprenticeship  in 
American  trade  unions,  561. 

Property  tax  in  Md.  (1776- 
1848),  362-366,  371,  377, 
455-458;  difficulty  of  col- 
lection of  (1841-1846),  466- 
469. 

Protected  state,  definition  of, 
347-348. 

Protests  in  Md.,  tax  on   (1842), 

465- 
Public    exhibitions    in    ]\Id.,    tax 

on   (1841),  464. 
Public  schools  in  Md.,  state  aid 

to     (1723-1839),     385,     391, 

411,     417-419,     435     (note), 

453-454- 

Railway    unions,    no    apprentice 

system  in,  536-538. 
Randolph,   Edmund   J.,   and   the 

Monroe      mission,      58-100, 

103. 
Real    estate    in    Philippines,    tax 

on,  10. 
Receivers,    tax    on    commissions 

of,  in   Md.    (1845),  462-463. 
Religious  toleration  in  Maryland 

(1642-49),      255-256,      264- 

268. 
Resumption  of  interest  payment 

on  state  debt  of  Md.  (1848), 

474-475- 

Revenue  of  Md.  (1776-1848), 
360-369,  372-375,  380-386, 
389-390,  394-412,  451,  455- 
465,  470-471,  478-479. 

Rivier,  A.,  quoted,  283,  315,  318, 
319,  320,  321. 

Rousseau,  on  the  state,  307-308; 
on  government,  307. 

Ruttiman,  quoted,  289. 

Salaries     in     Md.     (1790,     1815, 

1842),  375  (note) 
Saw   smiths,  non-union   workers 


in,  545  (note)  ;  apprentice 
regulations  of,  578-579. 

"  Scipio,"  see  Uriah  Tracy. 

Semi-sovereignty,  nature  of,  337. 

Sidgwick,  quoted,  289. 

Sinking  fund  of  Md.  (1784- 
1848),   372,   44&-449,  481- 

Sovereignty,  historv  and  nature 
°.^'.  316-318,  319-321  ;  indi- 
visibility of,  322-332;  divisi- 
bility of,  333-342. 

Spain  and  navigation  of  Missis- 
sippi and  southern  boundary 
of  U.  S.,  69-73,  82-86. 

Sphere  of  influence,  definition 
of,  348. 

Stamp  tax  in  Md.  (1845),  464- 
465- 

State  in  Constitutional  and  In- 
ternational Law  (Crane), 
277-348. 

State  in  constitutional  law,  292- 
310,  322-332;  early  concept 
of,  292-294;  definition  of  by 
Bodin,  295-300;  by  the 
Monarchomachen,  300-301 ; 
by  Hobbes,  301-306;  by 
Locke,  306 ;  by  Rousseau, 
307-308;  by  modern  German 
writers,  308-310;  indivisi- 
bility of  sovereignty  in,  322- 
332;  subjects  of,  329-331. 
344-345 ;  location  of  sover- 
eignty in,  322-323,  324-325; 
government  in,  325 ;  law  in, 
324,  326-327;  force  in,  326- 
329;  territory  of,  330;  de- 
finition of,  331-332. 

State  in  international  law,  311- 
321,  333-342;  discussion  of 
Grotius'  views  of,  312-313; 
essential  and  occasional  ele- 
ments of,  315-321,  333-342; 
divisibility  of  sovereignty  in, 
333-342;  people  of.  339-341, 
345  ;  government  of,  336 ;  in- 
dependence in,  336-338 ; 
rights  in,  338-339.  34i ; 
classification  of  nations, 
345-348. 

Stationary  Firemen,  Interna- 
tional Brotherhood  of,  no 
apprentice  system  in,  537. 

Steel  and  Copper  Plate  Printers, 
International  Union  of,  ap- 
prentice regulations  in,  563. 


603] 


Index. 


121 


Steel  range  workers,  regulation 
of  apprenticeship  by  inter- 
national union  of,  550. 

Steiner,  Bernard  C,  "  Maryland 
during  the  English  Civil 
Wars,"  Pt.  II.,  155-268. 

Stock  in  Md.,  tax  on  (1841- 
1848),  458-459- 

Stone,  Wm.,  252,  253,  255-268. 

Stone  Cutters'  Association, 
Journeymen,  regulation  of 
work  by,  549  (note)  ;  ap- 
prentice rules  of,  550  (note)  ; 
character  of  regulations,  557, 
558,  563,  569-570,  572,  574, 
577,  578,  579-580;  effect  on 
apprenticeship  of  invention 
of  machinery,  583-584. 

Stove  mounters,  regulation  of 
apprenticeship  by  interna- 
tional  union  of,  550. 

Strikes,  status  of  apprentice 
during,   570. 

Stubbs,  quoted,  286. 

Subjects  (of  the  state),  329- 
330,  344-345- 

Susquehanna  and  Patapsco 
Canal  Company,  see  Tide- 
water   Canal    Company. 

Susquehanna  Canal,  Maryland's 
aid  to,  426. 

Suzerainty,  definitions  of,  283- 
287. 

Taft,  Wm.  H.,  and  internal  tax- 
ation in  Philippines,  13. 

Taxation  in  Md.  (1776-1848), 
forms  of,  361-366,  374-375. 
455-465 ;  declaration  of  Bill 
of  Rights  on,  377-37S;  ar- 
rearages in,  381-382 ;  of 
banking  capital,  384-386 ;  in- 
direct. 394-A19;  difficulties 
of  collection,  466-469. 

Taxes  in  Philippines,  Spanish 
and  American,  poll  tax,  7- 
II,  28,  42;  on  Chinese,  9;  on 
coinage  of  money,  9-10;  on 
urban  property,  9-10;  on 
business  houses,  9-11,  30-32, 
42;  on  forest  products,  9-1 1, 
29-30,  42 ;  on  real  estate, 
10;  on  documents,  lo-ii, 
26-28,  32,  42 ;  on  corpora- 
tions, 23;  on  inheritances, 
23 ;    on   alcohol,   25 ;    on   to- 


bacco, 25-26;  on  banks,  26, 
32,  42;  on  insurance  com- 
panies, 29,  32,  42;  on  min- 
ing concessions,  30,  42 ;  on 
occupations,  31,  33,  42. 

Taylor,  Hannis,  quoted,  283,  319. 

Taylor,  John,  on  Monroe  mis- 
sion,   142-143. 

Tazewell,  Henry,  on  Jay  treaty, 
93 ;  on  Monroe  mission,  123. 

Territory,  relation  of,  to  sover- 
eignty, 316-318,  329-330;  to 
a   nation,   338-340. 

Textile  industry,  no  apprentice 
system  in,  539. 

Tidewater  Canal  Company  (Sus- 
quehanna and  Patapsco 
Canal  Company),  Mary- 
land's aid  to,  442,  472-473. 

Tobacco  inspection  in  Md. 
(1824),    assumed    by    state, 

Tobacco  in  Philippines,  Spanish 
government  control  of 
( 1 782-1883),  9,  12;  Ameri- 
can tax  on,  25-26;  revenue 
from,  42. 

Tracy,  Uriah  ("Scipio"),  and 
Monroe  mission,   143. 

Trade  agreement,  regulation  of 
apprenticeship  by,  524-534. 

Trade  unions,  American,  regula- 
tion of  apprentices  by,  513- 
523 ;  no  apprentice  system  in 
certain,  535-540;  apprentice 
system  maintained  by  other, 
540-545 ;  partial  control  of 
apprentice  system  by,  545- 
547;  control  of  apprentice 
system  by  local  unions,  548- 
550;  by  international  unions, 
550-552;  purposes  of  con- 
trol of  apprentices  by,  553- 
556;  admission  of  appren- 
tices  into.   580-581.   586-588. 

Travelers'  Goods  and  Leather 
Novelty  Workers'  Interna- 
tional Union,  age  of  appren- 
ticeship in,  562. 

Treasury  of  Md.,  administration 
of  (1790),  376-378;  effect  of 
surplus    in    (1813),    389-393- 

Treaty  of  1778,  alleged  viola- 
tions of  by  U.  S.,  105-110. 

Tributary  state,  definition  of, 
347- 


122 


Index. 


[604 


Trustees,  tax  on  commissions  of, 
in  Md  (1845),  462-463. 

"  Two-thirder,"  in  the  printing 
industry,  500,  507-508. 

Typographia,  deutsch-amerikan- 
ischen,  apprentice  system  in, 

544.  .    .  , 

Typographical  Association,  Na- 
tional, regulates  term  of  ap- 
prenticeship, 518. 
Typographical  Association  of 
New  York,  on  employment 
of  foreign  workmen,  501- 
502;  on  "  two-thirder s,"  507- 
508;  on  pay  for  journeymen 
teaching  apprentices,  50S. 
Typographical  Society,  Balti- 
more,      on      apprenticeship, 

513-514- 
Typographical    Society,    Colum- 
bia,   on    apprenticeship,    513, 

514- 

Typographical  Society,  Nash- 
ville, on  apprenticeship,  514. 

Typographical  Society,  New  Or- 
leans,      on      apprenticeship, 

514-515- 
Typographical  Society,  Philadel- 
phia, on  apprentices,  513. 
Typographical  Union,  Inter- 
national, limits  number  of 
apprentices,  515;  control  of 
apprentices  in  certain  unions 
of,  SSI- 
Union  Manufacturing  Company, 
Maryland's  aid  to,  428 
(note). 
United  States,  southern  bound- 
ary of,  and  Monroe's  nego- 
tiation, 69-73,  82-86;  and 
treaty  with  Algiers  (i795), 
87-88,  111-114;  and  Jay 
treaty,  93-101,  121-122;  al- 
leged violation  of  treaty  of 
1778  by,  105-110;  surplus 
revenue  distribution  (1837), 
Maryland's  share  of,  411- 
412. 


Upholsterers'  International 
Union,  apprentice  cards  in, 
562. 

Urban  property  in  Philippines. 
tax  on,  9-10. 

Van     Stophorst     loan     to     Md. 

(1782),  369,  380.  ^ 
Vassal    territory,    definition    of, 

347- 
Vaughan,  Robert,   1S4,  247,  253, 
260,  261. 

Wages  of  apprentices  in  Ameri- 
can  trade  unions,   508,   575- 

577- 
Wagon    and    carriage    industry, 
no     apprentice     system     in, 

539- 

Waitz,   quoted,  289. 

War  of  1812,  financiering  of,  in 
Md.,  386-389;  payment  by 
U.  S.  of  Maryland's  claims 
for,  410-411. 

Washington,  George,  and  Mon- 
roe mission,  95,  127,  139-142, 

US- 
Watch  case  engraving  industry, 
apprentice  system  in,  545 ; 
character  of  apprentice 
regulations  in,  564,  574-575- 

Wheaton,  Henry,  quoted,  320. 

White,  Father  Andrew,  205. 

Window  glass  workers,  regula- 
tion of  apprenticeshin  by 
international  union  of,  550; 
character  of  regulations, 
5S7,  558  (and  note),  559- 
560,  579- 

Wire  weaving  industry,  appren- 
tice regulations  in,  571. 

Wolcott,  Oliver,  and  Monroe 
mission,   131,   144. 

Woolsey,  quoted,  288-289. 

Working  cards  of  apprentices  in 
American  trade  unions,  561- 
562. 

Wright,  Luke  E..  and  internal 
taxation    in    Philippines,    15. 


JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

(Edited  by  H.  B.  Adams,  1882-1901) 

J.  M.  VINCENT 
J.  H.  HOLLANDER  W.  W.  WILLOUGHBY 

Editors 


VOLUME  XXV 


INTERNATIONAL  AND 
COLONIAL  HISTORY 


BALTIMORE 

THE^JOHNS  HOPKINS  PRESS 

1907 


Copyright   1907   by 
THE  JOHNS   HOPKINS   PRESS' 


MtM  or 

The  Niw  Eia  Pdiiiting  COWUMT 
Lancaite*,  Pa. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE. 

I. — Internal  Taxation  in  the  Philippines.  By  J.  S.  Hord. ..  i 
II-III. — The  Monroe  Mission  to  France,  1794-1796.    By  B.  W. 

Bond,  Jr 47 

IV- V. — Maryland  During  the  English  Civil  Wars.     Part  II. 

By  B.  C.   Steiner 151 

VI-VII. — The  State  in   Constitutional  and   International 

Law.     By  R.  T.  Crane 271 

VIII-IX-X. — A  Financial  History  of  Maryland,   1789-1848. 

By  H.  S.  Hanna 349 

XI-XII. — Apprenticeship    in    American    Trade    Unions.     By 

J.    M.    Motley 483 


JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVERSITY  STUDIES 

IN 

Historical  and  Political  Science 

Under  the  direction  of  the 

Departments  of  History,  Political  Economy 

and 
Political    Science 


TWENTY-SIXTH  SERIES,  1908. 


The  University  Studies  will  continue  to  publish,  as  heretofore,  the 
results  of  recent  investigations  in  History,  Political  Science,  and  Politi- 
cal Economy.  The  new  series  will  present  topics  of  interest  in  the 
early  political,  social  and  economic  history  of  Europe  and  the  United 
States.  The  cost  of  subscription  fop  the  regular  Annual  Series,  com- 
prising about  600  pages,  with  index,  is  $3.00  (foreign  postage,  50  cents). 
Single  numbers,  or  special  monographs,  at  special  prices. 

For   the  year  1908,   the   titles   given   below   are   now   announced;   other 
numbers  will  folloio  from   time  to   time. 

BRITISH  COMMITTEES,  COMMISSIONS,  AND  COUNCILS  OF  TRADE 
AND  PLANTATIONS,  1622  1675.      By  Charles  M.  Andrews. 

QUESTIONS  OF  INTERNATIONAL  LAW  INVOLVED  IN  THE  BRITISH- 
BOER  WAR.     By  R.  G.  Campbell. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  CONSPIRACY  IN  ENGLISH  LAW.    By  J.  W.  Bryan. 

CONSTITUTIONAL     AND     POLITICAL     CHANGES     IN     MARYLAND, 
1 864-1 867.     By  W.  S.  Myers. 

BENEFICIARY  FEATURES  OF  AMERICAN  TRADE  UNIONS.    By  J.  B. 
Kennedy. 


THE  JOHNS  HOPKINS  PRESS  OF  BALTIMORE. 

American  Journal  of  Mathematics.  Fbank  Morley,  Editor.  Quarterly. 
4to.  \'olume  XXX  in  progress.  $5  per  volume.  (Foreign  post- 
age fifty  cents.) 

American  Chemical  Journal.  Ira  Remsen,  Editor.  Monthly.  8vo.  Vol- 
ume XXXI X  in  progress.     $5  per  year.     (Foreign  postage  fifty  cents.) 

American  Journal  of  Philology.  B.  L.  Gildersleeve,  Editor.  Quarterly. 
8vo.  Volume  XXVIII  in  progress.  $3  per  volume.  (Foreign  post- 
age  fifty   cents.) 

Studies  in  Historical  and  Political  Science.  ]Monthly.  8vo.  Volume  XXVI 
in  })r()gro.ss.     $,"5  per  ^•ohlm(■.     (Foreign  postage  fifty  cents.) 

Johns  Hopkins  University  Circular.     Monthly.     8vo.     $1  per  year. 

Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Bulletin.  Monthly.  4to.  Volume  XIX  in  pro- 
gress.    $2  per  year.     (Foreign  postage   fifty  cents.) 

Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Reports.  4to.  Volume  XV  in  progress.  $5  per 
volume.      (Foreign   postage    fifty    cents.) 

Contributions  to  Assyriology  and  Semitic  Philology.  Paul  Haupt  and 
Friedricii  Delitzscui,  Editors.    Volume  VI  in  progiess. 

Memoirs  from  the  Biological  Laboratory.  W.  K.  Brooks,  Editor.  Volume 
VI  in  progress. 

Modern  Language  Notes.  A.  M.  Elliott,  Editor.  Monthly.  4to.  Vol- 
ume XXI 11  in  progress.  $1.50  per  volume.  (Foreign  postage  twenty 
five   cents.) 

American  Journal  of  Insanity.  Henry  M.  Hurd,  Editor.  Quarterly. 
8vo.     Volume  LXIV  in  progress.    $5.00  ])er  volume. 

Terrestrial  Magnetism  and  Atmospheric  Electricity.  L.  A.  Bauer,  Editor. 
Quarterly.  8vo.  Volume  XII  in  progress.  $2.50  per  volume.  (For- 
eign postage   twenty-five   cents.) 

Reprint  of  Economic  Tracts.  J.  H.  Hollander,  Editor.  First  series, 
$3.00.     Second  series,  .$2.00.     Tliird  series  in  progress,  $2.00. 

Report  of  the  Maryland  Geological  Survey. 

Report  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University.  Presented  by  the  President  to 
the  Board  of  Trutsees. 

Register  of  the  Johns  Hopkins  University.  Giving  the  list  of  officers  and 
students,  and  stating  the  regulations,  etc. 

Rowland's  Photograph  of  the  Normal  Solar  Spectrum.     Ten  plates. 

$20. 
Photographic    Reproduction    of    the   Kashmirian    Atharva-Veda.     M. 

Bloomfield,  Editor.     3  vols.     Folio.     $50. 
Poema   de   Fernan   G0N5ALEZ.     Edited  by   C.   Carroll    Marden.     284    pp. 

$2.50  net. 
The  Taill  of  Rauf   Coilyear.     Edited  by   William   Hand   Browne.     164 

pp.     $1  net. 
A  New  Critical  Edition  of  the  Hebrew^  Text  of  the  Old  Testament. 

Paul  Haupt,  Editor.     Prospectus  on  application. 
Studies  in  Honor  of  Professor  Gildersleeve.     527  pp.     $0. 
The  Physical  Papers  of  Henry  A.  Rowland.     716  pp.     $7.50. 
Baltimore  Lectures  on   Molecular  Dynamics   and  the  Wave  Theory 

OF  Light.     By  Lord  Kelvin.     716  pp.     $4.50  net. 
The  Oyster.     By  William  K.  Brooks.     225  pp.     $1  net. 
EccLESiAST?:s :    A   New   Metrical   Translation.      By   Paul    Haupt.      50   pp. 

50  cents. 
The  Book  of  Nahum:  A  New  Metrical  Translation.     By  Paul  Haupt.     53 

pp.     50  cents. 
Ancient  Sinope.    By  David  M.  Robinson.     112  pp.    $1  net. 

Communications  should  be  addressed  to  The  Johns  Hopkins  Press. 


THE 

Quarterly  Journal  of  Economics 

Published  for  Harvard  University. 

Is  established  for  the  advancement  of  knowledge  by  the  full  and  free  dis- 
cussion of  economic  questions.  The  editors  assume  no  responsibility  for 
the  views  of  contributors,  beyond  a  guarantee  that  they  have  a  good  claim 
to  the  attention  of  well-informed  readers. 

Communications  for  the  editors  should  be  addressed  to  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Economics,  Cambridge,  Mass.;  business  communications  and 
subscriptions  ($3.00  a  year),  to  Geo.  H.  Ellis  Co.,  272  Congress  Street, 
Boston,  Mass. 

CONTENTS  FOR  AUGUST,  1907 

I.     THE  TREASURY  AND   THE  BANKS  TINDER  SEC- 
RETARY SHAW A.  P.  Andrew 

II.     THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  UNION  PACIFIC  AND  ITS 

FINANCIAL  OPERATIONS Thomas  Warner  Mitchell 

III.  MODES   OF  CONSTRUCTING  INDEX-NUMBERS       .  A.  W.  Flux 

IV.  TAX     DISCRIMINATION     IN     THE     PAPER     AND 

PULP  INDUSTRY Roswell  C.  McCrea 

NOTES  AND  MEMORANDA: 

Municipal     Ownership     of     Telephones     in     Great 
Britain A.  N.  Holocombe 

Industrial  Concentration  as  shown  by  the  Census  .  William  Z.  Ripley 

RECENT  PUBLICATIONS  UPON  ECONOMICS. 


CONTENTS  FOR  NOVEMBER,  1907 

L     MORTGAGE  TAXATION  IN  WISCONSIN       ...  T.  S.  Adams 

n.     THE  NATURE  OF  CAPITAL:  A  REJOINDER       .       .  E.  Bohm-Bawerk 

III.  THE  RENT   CONCEPT,  NARROWED  AND  BROAD- 

ENED        Frank  T.  Carlton 

IV.  AN  ILLUSTRATION  OF  THE  CONTINUITY  OF  THE 

OPEN   FIELD   SYSTEM P.  VinogradofE 

Appendix:  Court  Roll  of  an  Oxfordshire  Manor. 
V.     THE  TAXATION  OF  THE  UNEARNED  INCREMENT 

IN  GERMANY Robert  Brunhuber 

Appendix:    The    Cologne    Ordinance    levying    an 
Increment  Tax. 
VL     THE    TEXAS    STOCK    AND    BOND    LAW    AND    ITS 

ADMINISTRATION E.  T.  Miller 

NOTES  AND  MEMORANDA: 

Political   Economy    and   Business    Economy:    Com- 
ments on  Fisher's  Capital  and  Income  ...  J.  B.  Commons 
The     Meetings     of     British     and     of     American 

Economists F.  W,  Taussig 

The  Massachusetts  Inheritance  Tax  of  1907  .       .  T.  N.  Carver 

KECENT  PUBLICATIONS  UPON  ECONOMICS. 


The  American  Economic  Association 


The  publications  of  the  Association  were  begun  in  1886  and  have  continued  to 
appear  in  various  forms  and  series.  They  number  twenty-four  complete  volumes 
to  the  close  of  IflOG,  and  include  many  of  the  most  important  monographs  on  eco- 
nomics that  have  appeared  in  America.  A  complete  price  list  will  be  sent  on 
application  to  the  addresses  below. 
Recent  numbers  are  as  follows  : 

THIRD   SERIES. 
Volume  IV,  1003. 
No.  1.     Fifteenth  Annual  Meeting;  Papers  on  Trades  Unions  (4)  ;  Railway  Regula- 
tion  (2)  ;   Theory  of  Wages:   Theory  of  Rent;   Oriental  Currency  Prob- 
lem; Economics  and  Social  Progress.     I'p.  HOS.     Price,  $1.25. 
No.  2.     Ethnic  Factors  in  the  Population  of  Boston.     By  Frederick  A.  Bosiiee. 

I'p.  171.     Price,  ?1.(H». 
No.  3.     History    of    Contract    Labor    in    the    Hawaiian    Islands.      By    Katharine 

Coii.vjs.     I'p.  74.     Price,  75  cents. 
No.  4.     The  Income  Tax  in  the  Commonwealths  of  the  United  States.     By  Delos 
O.  Kinsman.     Pp.  134.     Price,  $1.00. 

Volume  V,  1904. 
No.  1.     Sixteenth  Annual  Meeting.     Part  I. — Papers  and  Discussions  on  Southern 
Agricultural  and  Industrial  Problems   (7)  ;   Social  Aspects  of  Economic 
Law;  Relations  between  Rent  and  Interest.     I'p.  240.     I'rice,  $1.00. 

Southern    Economic   Problems.      Reprinted   from    Part    I.      Price    50 
cents. 

Relations  between  Rent  and  Interest.  By  Frank  A.  Fetter  and 
others.  Reprinted  from  I'art  I.  I'rice,  50  cents. 
No.  2.  Sixteenth  Annual  Meeting.  Part  II. — Papers  and  Discussions  on  the  Man- 
agement of  the  Surplus  Reserve ;  Theory  of  Loan  Credit  in  Relation  to 
Corporation  Economics;  State  Taxation  of  Interstate  Commerce;  Trusts; 
Theory  of  Social  Causation.     I'rice,  $1.00. 

Theory  of  Social  Causation.     By  Franklin  II.  Giddinps  and  others. 
Reprinted  from  Part  II.     I'rice,  50  cents. 
No.  3.     Monopolistic    Combinations    in   the    German    Coal   Industry.      By    Francis 

Walker.     Price,  $1.25. 
No.  4.     The  Influence  of  Farm  Machinery  on  Production  and  Labor.     By  Hadly 
W.  Quaintance.    Price,  75  cents. 

Volume  VI,  1905. 

No.  1.  Seventeenth  Annual  Meeting.  Part  I. — Presidential  Address:  Present 
Position  of  the  Doctrine  of  Free  Trade,  F.  W.  Taussig  ;  The  Theory 
of  Money;  Papers  by  J.  Laurence  Laughlin.  David  Kinley,  A.  Piatt 
Andrew.  Discussion.  Open  Shop  or  Closed  Shop?  Papers  by  John  R. 
Commons,  John  Graham  Brooks,  John  Hibbard,  Thomas  Kidd.  DiS' 
cussion.     Pp.  226.     Price,  $1.00. 

No.  2.  Seventeenth  Annual  Meeting.  Part  II. — Governmental  Interference  witl 
Industrial  Combination,  E.  B.  Whitney  ;  Regulation  of  Railway  Rates, 
M.  A.  K.VAi'p;  Taxation  of  Railways,  II.  C.  Adams  and  W.  A.  Baij)- 
WIN  ;  Preferential  Tariffs  and  Reciprocity,  A.  Siiortt,  G.  F.  Foster, 
and  A.  W.  Flux;  Inclosure  Movement,  K.  F.  Gray;  Economic  History 
of  the  United  States,  C.  D.  Wricht.     Pp.  270.     Price,  $1.00. 

No.  3.     The  History  and  Theory  of  Shipping  Subsidies.    Bv  Royal  Meeker.     Price, 

$1.(10. 

No.  4.  The  Factory  Legislation  in  New  York  State.  By  Fred  R.  Fairciiild. 
Price,  $1.00. 

Volume  VII,  19(10. 

No.  1.     Eighteenth  Annual  Meeting:  Papers  and  Discussions  on  Theory  of  Distribu- 
tion;  Government  Regulation  of  Railway  Rates   (2);  Municipal  Owner- 
ship  (2);  Labor  Disputes  (2);  The  Economic  Future  of  the  Negro  (2). 
Pp.  .'?25.     Price,  $1.00. 
No.  2.     Railroad  Rate  Control.     P.y  II.  S.  Smallkv.     Pp.  147.     I'rice,  $1.00. 
2fo.  3.     On    Collective    Phenomena    and    the    Scientific    Value    of    Statistical   Data. 
Bv  I>it.  (iuYZANovsKi.     Pp.  4S.     Price.  75  cents. 
Handbook  of  the  Association,  1906.      Pp.  4.S.      Price,  25  cents. 
No.  4.     The  Taxation  of  the  Gross  Receipts  of  Railways  in  "Wisconsin.     By  G.  E. 
Snider.     I'l).  l.'iS.     Pi  ire.  $l.(i(i. 
Address  subscriptions,  applica*^»r*»8  for  mcmbprship,  and  inquiries  to  the 
Secretary  or  the  American   Economic   Association, 

Princeton,  New  Jersey. 
Address  all  orders,  except  sub!»*'^pi^lcnp,  *o  the  publishers, 

Tn"*.  \Iacmill.\n   To., 

66  Fifth  Avenue,  New  York, 

Iv 


STUDIES  IN  HISTORY,  ECONOMICS 
AND  PUBLIC  LAW 

EDITED   BY 

THE  FACULTY  OF  POLITICAL  SCIENCE  OF 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 


RECENT   NUMBERS. 


VOLUME  XXV,  1906-1907.     600  pp.     Price,  $4.00. 

1.  *Municipal  Control  of  Public  Utilities. 

By  Oscar  Lewis  Pond,  Ph.D.     Price,  ^1.00. 

2.  The  Budget  in  the  American   Commonwealths. 

By  Eugene  E.  Agger,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.50. 

3.  The  Finances  of  Cleveland. 

By  Charles  C.  Williamson,  Ph.D.     Price,  ?2.00. 

VOLUME  XXVI,   1907.     559  pp.     Price,  $3.50. 

1.  Trade  and  Currency  in  Early  Oregon. 

By  James   H.   Gilbert,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.00. 

2.  Luther's  Table  Talk.  By  Preserved  Smith,   Ph.D.     Price,   ?1.00. 

3.  The  Tobacco  Industry  in  the  United  States, 

By  Meyer  Jacobstbin,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.50. 

4.  Social  Democracy  and  Population. 

By  Alvan   a.  Tenney,  Ph.D.     Price,   75  cents. 

VOLUME  XXVII.   1907.     578  pp.     Price,  $3.50. 

1.  The  Economic  Policy  of  Robert  Walpole. 

By  NoRRis  A.  Brisco,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.50. 

2.  The   United   States   Steel    Corporation. 

By  Abraham  Berglund,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.50. 

3.  The  Taxation  of  Corporations  in  Massachusetts. 

By  Harry  G.  Friedman,  A.B.     Price,  $1.50. 

VOLUME  XXVIII,  1907.     564  pp.     Price,  $3.50. 

1.  DeWitt  Clinton  and  the  Origin  of  the  Spoils  System  in  New  York. 

By  Howard  Lee  McBain.  Ph.D.     Price.  $1.50. 

2.  The  Development  of  the  Legislature  of  Colonial  Virginia. 

By  E.  I.  Miller,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.50. 

3.  The    Distribution    of    Ownership. 

By  Joseph  Harding  Underwood,  Ph.D.     Price,  $1.50. 

VOLUME   XXIX,   1908. 

1.  Early  New  England  Towns.  By  Anne  Bush  MacLear.      {In  jjress.) 

2.  The  Enforcement  of  the  Statutes  of  Laborers. 

By  Bertha  Haven  Putnam,  Ph.D.     {In  press.) 

VOLUME  IV,  NO.  2.     Second  Edition,  1908. 
*Tli6  I  nil  6ir  its.  lie  6  CD&x 

By  Max  West,  Ph.D.     Completely  revised  and  enlarged.     Price,  $2.00. 


The  price  for  each  volume  is  for  the  set  of  monographs  in  paper.  Each  volume,  as 
well  as  the  separate  monographs  marked  *,  can  be  supplied  in  cloth-bound  copies 
for  fifty  cents  additional. 

The  set  of  twenty-eight  volumes   (except  that  Vol.  II  can  be  supplied  only  in  un- 
bound Nos.  2  and  3)   is  offered  bound  for  $90.     Volumes  I,  III  and  IV 
can  now  be  supplied  only  in  connection  with  complete  sets. 


For  further  information  apply  to 

Prof.  EDWIN  R.   A.   SELIGMAN,   Columbia  University, 

or  to  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY,  New  York. 
London:  P.  S.  KING  &  SON,  Orchard  House,  Westminster. 


BOOKS  OF  TIMELY  INTEREST 

Selections   and   Documents  in  Economics 

Edited  by  Professor  William  Z.  Kiplky,  of  Harvard  University. 

Trusts^  Pools  and  Corporations 

Edited  by  WILLIAM  Z.  KIPLEY 

ProfesHor  of  Economics  in  Harvard  University 

A  collection  of  important  documents  by  economic  and  legal  specialists,  dealing 
with  the  greatest  problem  in  domestic  politics  now  before  the  country.  It  is 
from  such  a  book  as  this,  rather  than  from  newspaper  comments  or  articles  in 
popular  magazines,  that  one  can  get  an  intelligent  and  accurate  explanation  of 
contemporary  problems  as  well  as  a  progressive  history  of  the  whole  subject. 

Trade  Unionism  and  Labor  Problems 

Edited  by  JOHN  K.  COMMONS 

Professor  of  Political  Economy  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin 

This  book  docs  for  the  problems  of  lalior  what  "  Trusts,  Pools,  and  Corpora- 
tions "  has  done  for  the  problems  of  capital.  The  entire  field  of  labor  is  thus 
covered  by  a  series  of  cases  with  the  attendant  circumstances. 

Sociology  and  Social  Progress 

A  Handbook  for  Students  of  Sociology 

l;y  THOMAS  NIXON  CARVER 

Profcs.'ior  of  PoHlical  E'Onotny  in  Hnrvard  University 

Presenting  in  convenient  form,  the  most  significant  of  the  observations  made 
by  moralist,  metaphysician,  philosophic  historian,  .and  scientist  upon  the  phe- 
nomena of  society  in  general,  upon  the  laws  of  social  growth  and  decay,  and 
upon  the  problems  of  social  improvement. 

Selected  Readings  in  Public  Finance 

By   CHARLES  J.   BULLOCK 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economics  in  Harvard  University 

These  selections  include  readings  from  standard  authors  who  have  contributed 
to  the  development  of  the  science  of  finance,  and  other  material — documentary, 
descriptive,  and  historical — which  will  shed  light  upon  the  subject. 


The  Philippine  Islands 

By  FRED  VV.  ATKINSON 

President  of  the  Brooklyn  Polytechnic  Institute,  and  formerly 

General  Superintendent  of  Education  for  the  Philippines 

The  following  quotations  from  the  author's  Introduction  indicate  the  scope 
of  the  work.  "  To  present  the  results  of  i)ersonal  observation  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  an  accurate  and  comprehensive  idea  of  just  what  our  Philippine  posses- 
sions are;  to  show  the  real  conditions,  geograi)hical,  economic,  social,  and 
political  ;  to  picture  the  people  and  their  characteristics,  the  dilferent  phases  of 
tills  i)roblem  of  tropical  colonization,  the  possibilities  and  the  prospects, — such  is 
the  writer's  endeavor." 

GINN  &  CO.,  Publishers,  29  Beacon  St,,  Boston,  Mass. 

vl 


THE  YALE  REVIEW 

A  QUARTERLY  JOURNAL 

FOR  THE  DISCUSSION  OF  ECONOA\lC,  POLITICAL,  AND  SOCIAL  QUESTIONS 


The  Yale  Eeview  is  the  successor  of  the  New  Englander  and 
Yale  Eeview,  founded  in  1843,  In  1892  its  title  was  modified 
and  its  field  specialized.  It  now  confines  itself  to  economics, 
politics,  and  the  social  sciences,  giving  particular  attention  to 
the  scientific  discussion  of  practical  economic  and  social  prob- 
lems, and  to  the  legislative  and  voluntary  efforts  made  to  solve 
them.  Among  its  contributors  outside  of  the  editorial  board, 
are  Henry  C.  Adams,  E,  Benj.  Andrews,  Edward  Atkinson, 
Simeon  E.  Baldwin,  John  Bascom,  John  Graham  Brooks,  T.  IST. 
Carver,  J.  B.  Clark,  Eichard  T.  Ely,  Worthington  C.  Ford,  E.  E. 
L.  Gould,  J.  H.  Hollander,  Brayton  Ives,  J.  Laurence  Laughlin, 
Henry  C.  Lea,  Emile  Levasseur,  Bernard  Moses,  H.  T.  Newcomb, 
Simon  X,  Patten,  William  Z.  Eipley,  L.  S.  Eowe,  E.  E.  A.  Selig- 
man,  "Werner  Sombart,  H.  Morse  Stephens,  F.  J.  Stimson,  William 
Graham  Sumner,  F.  W.  Taussig,  Hannis  Taylor,  F.  A.  AYalker, 
Edward  B.  Whitney,  David  Willcox,  T.  S.  Woolsey,  Carroll  D. 
Wright,  Clinton  Eogers  Woodruff.  It  is  edited  by  the  following 
professors  in  the  Departments  of  Political  Science  and  History,  of 
Yale  University:  Henry  W.  Faenam,  E.  G.  Boukxe,  John  C. 
Schwab,  Irving  Fisher,  G.  S.  Callender,  Henry  C.  Emery, 
Clive  Day,  and  A.  G.  Keller. 


PUBLISHED  QUARTERLY 
On  the  15th  of  February,  May,  August  and  November,  by 

The  Tuttle,  Morehouse  &  Taylor  Company 

NEW  HAVEN,    CONN. 
SUBSCRIPTION  PRICE,       -        -        -       $3.00  A  YEAR 

vil 


Annual  Series  of  Studies  in  History  and  Politics,  1883-1907 

SERIES  I.— LOCAL  INSTITUTIONS.     479  pp.     I?4.00 
SERIES  II.— INSTITUTIONS  AND  ECONOMICS.     1520  pp.      $4.00. 
SERIES  III.— MARYLAND,    VIRGINIA   AND   WASHINGTON.      50,5    pp.      $4.00 
SERIES  IV.— MUNICIPAL    G0VERNMJ:NT,    AND    LAND    TENURE.       600    pp 
$a..'i(i. 

SERIES  v.— MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT,  HISTORY  AND  POLITICS.     559  pp 

SERIES  VI.— THE  HISTORY  OF  CO-OPERATION  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 
04O  pp.     .$.S..")U. 

SERIES  VII.— SOCIAL  SCIENCE,  MUNICIPAL  AND  FEDERAL  GOVERNMENT 
Not  sold  separately. » 

SERIES  VIII.— HISTORY,  POLITICS,  AND  EDUCATION.  (Not  sold  sepa 
ratelv.) 

SERIES  IX.— EDUCATION,  POLITICS,  AND  SOCIAL  SCIENCE.  (Not  sold 
separatelv.  i 

SERIES  X.— CHURCH  AND  STATE,  COLUMBUS  AND  AMERICA.  630  pp. 
$3.50. 

SERIES  XI.— LABOR,   SLAVERY,  AND  SELF-GOVERNMENT.     574  pp.      $3.50. 

SERIES  XII.— INSTITUTIONAL   AND   ECONOMIC   HISTORY.      626   pp.      $3.50. 

SERIES  XIII,— SOUTH  CAROLINA,  MARYLAND  AND  VIRGINIA.  GOG  pp. 
$3.50. 

SERIES  XIV.— BALTIMORE,  SLAVERY,  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY. 
5S8  pp.     $3.50. 

SERIES  XV.— AMERICAN  ECONOMIC  HISTORY.     G18  pp.     $3.50. 

SERIES  XVI.— ANGLO-AMERICAN  RELATIONS  AND  SOUTHERN  HISTORY. 
G24  pp.     $3.50. 

SERIES  XVII.— ECONOMIC  HISTORY:  MARYLAND  AND  THE  SOUTH.  600 
pp.  $3. 5(1. 

SERIES  XVIII.— TAXATION  IN  SOUTHERN  STATES;  CHURCH  AND  EDU- 
CATION.     5.S2  pp.      $3.50. 

SERIES  XIX.— DIPLOMATIC  AND  CONSTITUTIONAL  HISTORY.  650  pp. 
$3.50. 

SERIES  XX.— COLONIAL  AND   ECONOMIC  HISTORY.      622  pp.      $3.50. 

SERIES  XXI.— INDIANA,  NORTH  CAROLINA  AND  MARYLAND.  580  pp.  $3.50. 

SERIES  XXII,— SOCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HISTORY.     651  pp.     $3.50. 

SERIES  XXIII.— COLONIES,  REVOLUTION,  RECONSTRUCTION.  700  pp. 
$3.50. 

SERIES  XXIV.— DIPLOMATIC   HISTORY:    TRADE   UNIONS.      831    pp.      $3.50. 

SERIES  XXV.— INTERNATIONAL  AND   COLONIAL  HISTORY.     $3.50. 

The   set   of  twenty-five   series   of   Studies   is   now   offered,   uniformly   bound   in 
cloth,  for  library  use,  for  $82.00  net. 

All  business  communications  should  be  addressed  to  The  Johns  Hopkins  Press, 
Baltimore,  Makiland. 

Ajierican  Agents. 
New  York. — G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons.  Washington. — W.  H.  Lowdermilk  &  Co. 

Boston.— W.  B.  Clarke  Co.  Chicago.— A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co, 

Edropeax  Agents. 
Paris. — A.  Hermann  ;  Em.  Terquem.  London. — Kegan  Paul,  Trench,  Triibner  &  Co. ; 
Berlin. — Mayer  &  Miiller.  O.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 

Leipzig. — F.  A.  Brockhaus.  Turin,  Florence  and  Rome. — E.  Locscher  &  Co. 

Notes  Supplementary  to  the  Studies  in  History  and  Politics 

ri;i("E  (IF  these  notes.  te.\  cents  each. 

MUNICIPAL  GOVERNMENT  IN  ENGLAND.     By  Dr.  Albert  Shaw. 

SOCIAL  WORK  IN  AUSTRALIA  AND  LONDON.     Bv  William  Grey. 

ENCOURAGEMENT  OF  HIGHER  EDUCATION.     Bv'Prof.  H.  B.  Adams. 

THE   PROBLEM   OF   CITY   GOVERNMENT.      Bv   lion.    Seth   Low. 

THE  LIBRARIES  OF  BALTIMORE.     P.v  Dr.  P.  H.  TThler. 

WORK  AMONG  THE  WORKINGWOMEN  OF  BALTIMORE.  By  Prof.  II.  B. 
AriA:Ms. 

CHARITIES:  THE  RELATION  OF  THE  STATE,  THE  CITY.  AND  THE  INDI- 
VIDUAL TO  MODERN  PHILANTHROPIC  WORK.     By  Dr.  A.  G.  Warner. 

LAW  AND  HISTORY.     P.v  Dr.  Walter  B.  Scaife. 

THE  NEEDS  OF  SELF-SUPPORTING  WOMEN.     Bv  Mi.ss  Clare  HE  Graffenreid. 

EARLY  PRESBYTERIANISM  IN  MARYLAND.     Bv  Pov.  .T.  W,  McTlvain. 

THE  EDUCATIONAL  ASPECT  OF  THE  U.  S.  NATIONAL  MUSEUM.  P.y  Pro- 
ff-ssor  O,  T.  Masov. 

UNIVERSITY   EXTENSION  AND   THE   UNIVERSITY   OF   THE   FUTURE.      By 

niCr'ARI)   (;.    Mf)TI,TON. 

THE  PHILOSOPHY  OF  EDUCATION,      Bv  Dr.  William  T.  Harris, 
POPULAR  ELECTION  OF  U,  S,  SENATORS,     Bv  ,Toiin  Haynes. 
A  MEMORIAL  OF  LUCIUS  8,  MERRIAM.     Bv  .f.  IT.  Hollander  and  others. 
IS  HISTORY  PAST  POLITICS?     By  Professor  Herhert  B.  Adams. 
LAY  SERMONS.     By  Amos  G.  Warner;  with  a  biographical  sketch  by  Geohgh 
E.  Howard.     I'rice  twenty-five  cents. 

vlil 


Extra  Volumes  of  Studies 

IN 

Historical  and   Political  Science 


Philadelphia,  1681-1887.    By  Edwakd  P.  Allison,  A.:M.,  and  Boies  Pen- 
rose, A.B.     44-1  pages.     8vo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 
Local  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States.    By  George  E.  Howard, 

Ph.D.     Volume  I— Development  of  the  Township,  Hundred  and  Shire. 

542   pages.     8vo.     Cloth.     $3.00.     Volume   II— In   preparation. 
The    Negro   in   Maryland.    By    Jeffrey   Pv.   Brackett,   Ph.D.     270   pages. 

Svo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 
The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States.    By  W.  W.  Willoughby,  Ph.D. 

124  pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $1.25. 
The  Intercourse  between  the  U.  S.  and  Japan.    By  Inazo   (Ota)  Xitose, 

Ph.D.     198   pages.     Svo.     Clotli.     $1.25. 
Spanish  Institutions  of  the  Southwest.    By  Frank  AV.  Blackmar,  Ph.D. 

380   pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 
An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Constitution.    By  Morris  31.  Cohn. 

250  pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $1.50. 
The  Old  English  Manor.     By  C.   M.  Andrews,   Ph.D.     280  pages.     Svo. 

Cloth.    $1.50. 
The  Southern  Quakers  and  Slavery.     By  Stephen  B.  Weeks,  Ph.D.     414 

pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 
Contemporary   American    Opinion    of   the    French    Revolution.     By    C.   D. 

Hazen,  Ph.D.     325  pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $2.00. 
Industrial  Experiments  in  the  British  Colonies   of   North   America.    By 

Eleanor  L.  Lord.     164  pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $1.25. 

State   Aid   to   Higher   Education:     A   Series   of   Addresses   at    the   Johns 
Hopkins  University.     100  pages.     Svo.     Cloth.     $1.00. 

Financial  History  of  Baltimore.     By  J.  H.  Hollander,  Ph.D.     400  pages. 
Svo.     Cloth.    $2.00. 

Cuba  and  International  Relations.    By  J.  ]\I.  Callahan.     503  pages.     Svo. 
Cloth.     $3.00. 

The   American   Workman.     By    E.    Levasseur    (translation).     540    pages. 
Svo.     Cloth.     $3.00. 

Herbert  B.  Adams.     A  ]Memorial   Volume.     232   pages.     Svo.     Cloth. 

A  History  of  Slavery  in  Virginia.     By  J.  C.  Ballagh.     160  pages.     Svo. 

Cloth.     $1.50. 
The  Finances  and  Administration  of  Providence,  1636-1901.    By  Howar-' 

K.   Stokes.    474  pages.     Svo.    Cloth.    $3.50. 


THE   AMERICAN    WORKMAN 

By  professor  E.  LEVASSEUR 

AN  AMERICAN  TRANSLATION  BY  THOMAS  S.  ADAMS 

Edited  by  THEODORE  MARBURG 

540  pages,  octavo.     $3.00 

Cuba  and   International   Relations 

By  JAMES  MORTON  CALLAHAN,  Ph.D. 
503  pages,  octavo.    $3.00 

The  Neutrality  of  the  American  Lakes 
and   Anglo-American    Relations 

By  JAMES  MORTON  CALLAHAN 
200  pages,  octavo.     $1.50 

American  Relations  in  the  Pacific 
and  the  Far  East 

1784 -J  900 

By  JAMES  MORTON  CALLAHAN 

180  pages,  octavo.     75  cents. 

THE  ALBERT  SHAW  LECTURES  ON   DIPLOMATIC  HISTORY 

American  Diplomacy  under  Tyler 
and    Polk 

By  JESSE  S.  REEVES,  Ph.D. 

335  pages.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.50 
This  volume  discusses  the  Northeastern  Boundary  Controversy;  the 
Ashburton  Treaty;  the  Relations  between  Mexico  and  the  United  States. 
1825-184.3;  the  Annexation  of  Texas;  the  Northwestern  Boundary  Contro- 
versy; the  Oregon  Treaty;  Polk's  attempted  Negotiation  for  California; 
the  Outbreak  of  the  Mexican  War;  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo. 

International  Law  and  Diplomacy  of  the 
Spanish-American  War 

By  E.  J.  BENTON     (In  press) 

Orders  should  be  addressed  to 

The  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore,  Maryi.and. 


THE  AMERICAN  POLITICAL 
SCIENCE  ASSOCIATION 

ESTABLISHED  1903 

Frederick  N.  Judson,  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  <2?j:ccutiViE  Council : 

President 

President,  Vice-Presidents, 
Albert  Bushnell  Hart,  Harvard  Univ.,  Secretary  and  Treasurer,  ex-officio 

First  Vice-President    Stephen  Leacock,  McGill  University 
,,     .     „  _  ,,  _  A.  Lawrence  Lowell,  Harvard  Univ. 

H.    A.    GARFIELD,    PRINCETON     UNIVERSITY  ^,^^^^^    ^  ^^^    ^^^^    j.,^^ 

Second  ViCE-PRESiD..NT    Theodore  Woolsey,  Yale  University 
PAUL  S.  REiNscH,  Univ.  of  Wisconsin.  J'^""  T.  Yoi;NG,  University  of  Penn. 

Third  Vice-President    J.  A.  Fairlie,  University  of  Michigan 
J.  H.  Latane,  Washington  &.  Lee  Univ. 

W.    W.    WILLOUGHBY,    JOHNS    HOPKINS  H.    P     JUDSON,    UNIVERSITY    OF   CHICAGO 

University,  Baltimore,  Md.,        F.  J.  Gocdnow,  Columbia  University 
Secretary  and  Treasurer    B.  F.  Shambaugh,  University  of  Iowa 

AIM 

The  advancement  of  the  scientific  study  of  PoHtics,  Public  Law, 
Administration  and  Diplomacy  in  the  United  States. 

MEMBERSHIP 

Any  person  may  become  a  member  upon  payment  of  $3.00  annual 
dues.  Life  membership  $50.  Libraries  eligible  to  annual  member- 
ship. Members  entitled  to  all  piihlications  of  the  Association  issued 
during  membership. 

PUBLICATIONS 


Proceedings 


An  annual  cloth  bound  volume,  containing  papers  read  at  the  annual 
December  meetings  of  the  Association. 

The  American  Political  Science  Review 

Published    Quarterly.     Each   number  containing: 

1.  Leading  articles. 

2.  Notes  on  Current  Legislation. 

3.  "  Notes  and  News,"  National,  State,  jNIunicipal,  Colonial,  Foreign, 

Personal,  and  Miscellaneous. 

4.  Reviews. 

5.  Index  to   Political   Publications,  Books,   Periodical  Articles,   and 

Government  Publications. 
Each  number  contains  approximately  176  pages.  The  first  number 
issued  November,  1906.  Annual  subscription  price  to  persons  not  mem- 
bers of  the  Association,  $3.00.  New  members  paying  dues  for  1907  will 
be  sent  the  November  number  of  the  Review.  Members  desiring  to  com- 
plete their  sets  of  publications  of  the  Association  may  obtain  volumes  I 
and  II  of  the  Proceedings  for  one  dollar  each.  Specimen  copy  of  the 
Review  sent  upon  request. 


ADDRESS   ALL   REMITTANCES   AND   COMMUNICATIONS   TO 
Secretary  of  the  \V.  W.  WILLOUGHBY 

American  Political  Science  Association  Johns  Hopkins  University 

and  Managing  Editor  of    the   Review  Baltimore,  MD. 


A  REPRINT  OF 

ECONOMIC  TRACTS 

(THIRD   SERIES) 

The  reception  which  students  of  political  economy  in  this  country  and 

abroad  have  accorded  the  reprint  of  certain  notable  economic  tracts  of  the 

seventeenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  has  been  so  favorable  that  The  Johns 

Hopkins  Press  now   invites   subscriptions  to  a   somewhat  more  ambitious 

reprint  of  four  important  economic  essays  of  the  eighteenth  century,  to  be 

issued  consecutively  under  the  editorial  direction  of  Professor  Hollander. 

The  Querist,  containing  several  queries,  proposed  to  the  consideration  of 
the  public.  Parts  I,  II,  III.  [By  George  Berkeley.]  Dublin,  1735- 
1737. 

An  Essay  on  the  Governing  Causes  of  the  Natural  Rate  of  Interest; 
wherein  the  sentiments  of  Sir  William  Petty  and  Mr.  Locke,  on  that 
head,  are  considered.     [By  Joseph  Massie.]     London,  1750. 

Money  answers  all  Things:  or,  an  essay  to  make  monej'^  sufficiently  plenti- 
ful amongst  all  ranks  of  people,  and  increase  our  foreign  and  domestick 
trade.     By  Jacob  Vanderlint.     London,  1734. 

An  Essay  on  Ways  and  Means  for  raising  !Money  for  the  support  of  the 
present  war,  without  increasing  the  public  debts.      [By  Francis  Fau- 
quier.]    London,   1756. 
Each  tract  will  be  supplied  by  the  editor  with  a  brief  introduction  and 

with  text   annotations   where   indispensable.     The  general   appearance    of 

tlie    title    page    will    be    preserved    and    the    original    pagination    will    be 

indicated. 

The   edition   will   be   limited   to   five   hundred   copies.     With  a   view   to 

serving    the   largest    student   usefulness,    the    subscription    for   the    entire 

series  of  four  tracts  has  been  fixed  at  the  net  price  of  Two  Dollars. 

Of  the  tracts  heretofore  reprinted,  a  limited  number  can  yet  be  obtained 

as  follows.     As  the  editions  approach  exhaustion,  the  prices  indicated  are 

likely  to  be  increased  without  notice: 

Asgill,  "  SeA^eral  Assertions  Proved"    (London,  109G).     Price,  50  cents. 

Barbon,  "A  Discourse  of  Trade"   (London,  1690).     Price,  50  cents. 

Fortrey,  "  Englands  Interest  Considered"  (Cambridge,  1663).  Price,  50 
cents. 

Longe,  "A  Refutation  of  the  Wage-Fund  Theory"  (London,  1866).  Price, 
75  cents. 

Malthus,  "An  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  and  Progress  of  Rent"  (London, 
1815).     Price,  75  cents. 

North,  "Discourses  upon  Trade"  (London,  1691).    Price,  50  cents. 

Ricardo,  "Three  letters  on  'The  Price  of  Gold'"  (London,  1809), 
Price,  75  cents. 

West,  "Essay  on  the  Application  of  Capital  to  Land"  (London,  1815). 
Price,  75  cents. 

Subscriptions  and  orders  should  be  sent  to 

The  Johns  Hopkins  Press, 

Baltimoee,  Mabtland. 
xll 


NINTH  SERIES.— Education,  History,  Politics,  Social  Science. 

l-II.  Government  of  the  United  States.     By  W.  W.  Willougiiby  and  W.  F.  Wiixoughby. 
III-IV.  University    Education    in    Maryland.      By    B.    C.    Steinek.      The   Johns    Hopkins 

University    (1876-1891).     By  D.   C.   Gilmax.     50  cents. 
V-VI.  Municipal  Unity  in  the  Lombard   Communes.     By   W.   K.   Williams. 
VII-VIII.  Public  Lands  of  the  Roman  Republic.    By  A.  Stephenson.     75  cents. 

IX.  Constitutional  Development  of  Japan.     By  T.  Iyenaga.     50  cents. 

X.  A  History  of  Liberia.     By  .1.  H.  T.  McPhekson.     50  cents. 
XI-XII.  The  Indian  Trade  in  Wisconsin.    By  F.  J.  Tdrneh.     50  cents. 

TENTH  SERIES.— Church  and  State:  Columbus  and  America.— $3.50. 

I.  The  Bishop  Hill  Colony.    By  Michael  A.  Mikkelsbn.     50  cents. 

II-III.  Church  and  State  in  New  England.     By  Paul  E.  Lauee. 

IV.  Church  and  State  in  Maryland.    By  Geokge  Peteie. 

V-VI.  Religrious  Development  in  the  Province  of  North  Carolina.     By  S.  B.  Weeks. 

VII.  Maryland's  Attitude  in  the  Struggle  for  Canada.     By  J.  W.  Black.     50  cents. 
VIII-IX.  The  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania.     By  A.  C.  Applegaetii.     75  cents. 

X-SI.  Columbus  and  his  Discovery  of  America.     By  H.  B.  Adams  and  H.  Wood.     50  cents. 
XII.  Causes    of    the    American    Revolution.     By    J.    A.    Woodburn.     50    cents. 

ELEVENTH  SERIES.— Labor,  Slavery,  and  Self-Government.— $3.50. 

I.  The  Social  Condition  of  Labor.    By  E.  R.  L.  Gould.     50  cents. 

II.  The  World's  Representative  Assemblies  of  To-Day.     By  E.  K.  Alden.     50  cents. 
III-IV.  The  Negro  in  the  District  of  Columbia.     By  Edward  Ingle.     $1.00. 

V-v"!.  Church  and  State  in  North  Carolina.     By  Stephen  B.  Weeks.     50  cents. 
VII-VIII.  The  Condition  of  the  Western  Farmer,  etc.     By  A.  F.  Bentley.     $1.00. 
IX-X.  History  of  Sla.very  in  Connecticut.    By  Bernard  C.  Steiner.     75  cents. 
XI-XII.  Local  Government  in  the  South.    By  E.  W.  Bemis  and  others.     $1.00. 

TWELFTH   SERIES.— Institutional  and  Economic   History.— $3.50. 

I-II.  The    Cincinnati    Southern    Railway.     By    J.    H.    Holi.ander.     $1.00. 

III.  Constitutional  Beginnings  of  North  Carolina.     By  J.  S.  Bassett.     50  cents. 

IV.  Struggle  of  Dissenters  for  Toleration  in  Virginia.     By  H.  R.  McIlwaine.     50  cents. 
V-VI-VII.  The  Carolina  Pirates  and  Colonial  Commerce.     By  S.  C.  Hughson.     $1.00. 
VIII-IX.  Representation  and  Suffrage  in  Massachusetts.     By   G.  H.   Haynes.     50  certs. 
X.  English  Institutions  and  the  American  Indian.     By  J.  A.  James.     25  cents. 
XI-XII.  International  Beginnings  of  the  Congo  Free  State.     By  J.  S.  Reeves.     50  cents. 

THIRTEENTH  SERIES.— South  Carolina,  Maryland,  Virginia.— $3.50. 

I-II.  Government  of  the  Colony  of  South  Carolina.     By  E.  L.  Whitney.     75  cents. 
III-IV.  Early   Relations   of   Maryland   and   Virginia.     By    J.    H.    LatanS.     50    cents. 

V.  The  Rise  of  the  Bicameral  System  in  America.     By  T.  F.  Moran.     50  cents. 
VI-VII,  V/hite  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  Virginia.     By  J.  C.  Ballagh.     50  cents. 

VIII.  The  Genesis  of  California's  First  Constitution.     By  R.  D.  Hunt.     50  cents. 

IX.  Benjamin  Franklin  as  an  Economist.     By  W.  A.  Wetzei_     50  cents. 

X.  The  Provisional  Government  of  Maryland.     By  J.  A.  Sil^-br.     50  cents. 

XI-XII.  Government  and  Religion  of  the  Virginia  Indians.    By  S.  R.  Hendren.     50  cents. 

FOURTEENTH  SERIES.— Baltimore,  Slavery,  Constitutional  History.— $3.50. 

I.  Constitutional  History  of  Hawaii.     By  Henry  B.  Chambers.     25  cents. 

II.  City  Government  of  Baltimore.     By   Thaddeus   P.   Thomas.      25   cents. 

III.  Colonial  Origins  of  New  England  Senates.     By  F.  L.  Riley.     50  cents. 
IV-V.  Servitude  in  the  Colony  of  North  Carolina.     By  J.  S.  Bassett.     50  cents. 
VI-VII.  Renresentation  in  Virginia.     By  J.  A.  C.  Chandler.     50  cents. 

VIII.  History  of  Taxation  in  Connecticut  (1636-1776).       By  P.  B.  Jones.     50  cents. 
IX-X.  A  Study  of  Slavery  in  New  Jersey.     By  Henry  S.  Cooley.     50  cents. 
XI-XII,  Causes  of  the  Maryland  Revolution  of  1689.    By  F.  E.  Sparks.     50  cents. 

FIFTEENTH  SERIES.— American   Economic   History.— $3.50. 

I-II.  The  Tobacco  Industry  in  Virginia  since  1860.    By  B.  W.  Arnold.     50  cents. 
III-V.  Street  Railway  System  of  Philadelphia.     By  F.  W.  Speirs.     75  cents. 

VI.  Daniel  Raymond.     Bv  C.  P.   Neill.     50  cents. 

VII-VIII.  Economic  History  of  B.  &  O.  R.  R.     Bv  M.  Keizenstein.     50  cents. 

IX.  The  South  American  Trade  of  Baltimore.    Bv  F.  R.  Rutter.     50  cents. 

X-XI.  State  Tax  Commissions  in  the  United  States.     By  J.  W.  Chapman.     50  cents. 
XII.  Tendencies  in  American  Economic  Thought.    By  S.  Sherwood.     25  cents. 

SIXTEENTH  SERIES.— Anglo-American  Relations  and  Southern  History.— $3.50. 

l-rv.  The  Neutrality  of  the  American  Lakes,  etc.    By  J.  M.  Callahan.    $1.25. 

V.  West  Florida.     By  H.  B.  Chambers.     25  cents. 

VI.  Anti-Slavery  Leaders  of  North  Carolina.    By  J.  S.  Bassett.     50  cents. 
VII-IX.  Life  end  Administration  of  Sir  Robert  Eden.     By  B.  C.  Steiner.     $1.00. 

X-XI.  The  Transition  of  North  Carolina  from  a  Colony.     By  E.   W.   Sikes.     50  cents. 
XII.  Jared  Sparks  and  Alexis  De  Tocaueville.    By  H.  B.  Adams.     25  cents. 


SEVENTEENTH  SERIES.— Economic  History;  Maryland  and  the  South.— $3.50. 
I  II-III.  History   of    State   Banking    in    Maryland.     By    A.    C.    Buyan.     $1.00. 
IV-V.  Tho  Kncw-Kothing  Party  in  Maryland.    By  L.  F.  Schmeckebiek.     75  cents. 

VI.  The  Labadist  Colony  in  Maryland.     By  B.  B.  James.     50  cents. 
VII-VIII.  History  of  Slavery  in  North  Carolina.     By  J.  S.  Bassett.     75  cents. 

IX  X-XI.  Development  of  the  Chesapeake  &  Ohio  Canal.     By  G.  W.  Wakd.     75  cents. 
XII.  Public  Educational  Work  in  Baltimore.    By  Hbebert  B.  Adams.    25  cents. 

EIGHTEENTH  SERIES.— Taxation;  Church  and  Popular  Education.— $3.50. 

I-IV.  studies  in  State  Taxation.  Edited  by  J.  H.  Hollander.  Paper,  $1.00 ;  cloth,  $1.25. 
V-VI.  The  Colonial  Executive  Prior  to  the  Restoration.     By  P.  L.  Kave.     50  cents. 

VII.  Constitution  and  Admission  of  Iowa  into  the  Union.     By  J.  A.  Jambs.     30  cents. 
VIII-IX.  The  Church  and  Popular  Education.     By  H.  B.  Adams.     50  cents. 
X-XII.  Religious  Freedom  in  Virginia:  The  Baptists.     By  W.  T.  Thom.     75  cents. 

NINETEENTH  SERIES.— Diplomatic  and  Constitutional  History.— $3.50. 

I-III.  America  in  the  Pacific  and  the  Far  East.    By  J.  M.  Callahan.     75  cents. 

IV-V.  State  Activities  in  Relation  to  Labor.    By  VV.  F.  Willouguby.     50  cents. 

VI- VII.  History  of  Suffrage  in  Virginia.     By  J.  A.  C.  Chandler.     50  cents. 

VIII-IX.  The  Maryland  Constitution  of  1864.     By  W.  S.  Myers.     50  cents. 

X.  Life  of  Commissary  James  Blair.     By  D.  E.  Motley.     25  cents. 

XI-XII.  Gov.  Hicks  of  Maryland  and  the  Civil  War.    By  G.  L.  Radcliffb.     50  cents. 

TWENTIETH  SERIES.— Colonial  and  Economic  History.— $3.50. 

I.  Western  Maryland  in  the  Revolution.     By  B.  C.  Steiner.     30  cents. 

II-III,  State  Banks  since  the  National  Bank  Act.     By  G.  E.  Barnett.     50  cents. 

IV.  Early  History  of  Internal  Improvements  in  Alabama.     By  W.  E.  Martin.     30  cents. 
V-VI.  Trust  Companies  in  the  United  States.     By  George  Cator.     50  cents. 
VII-VIII.  The  Maryland  Constitution  of  1851.     By  J.  W.  Harry.       50  cents. 

IX-X.  Political  Activities  of  Philip  Freneau.     By  S.  E.  Forman.     50  cents. 

XI-XII.  Continental  Opinion  on  a  Middle  European  Tariff  Union.    By  G.  M.  Fisk.    30  cts. 

TWENTY-FIRST  SERIES.— Indiana,  North  Carolina  and  Maryland.— $3.50. 

III.  The  vrabash  Trade  Route.    By  E.  J.  Benton.     50  cents. 

III-IV.  Internal  Improvements  in  North  Carolina.     By   C.   C.   Weaver.     50  cents. 

V.  History  of  Japanese  Paper  Currency.     By  M.   Takaki.     30  cents. 

VI-VII.  Economics    and    Politics    in    Maryland,    1720-1750,    and    the  Public    Services    of 

Daniel  Dulany  the  Elder.     By  St.  G.  L.   Sioussat.     50  cents. 

VIII-IX-X.  Beginnings  of  Maryland,  1631-1639.     By  B.  C.  Steiner.  75  cents. 

XI-XII.  The  English  Statutes  in  Maryland.    By  St.  G.  L.  Sioossat.  50  cents. 

TWENTY-SECOND   SERIES.— Social  and  Industrial  History.— $3.50. 

I-II.  A  Trial  Bibliography  of  American  Trade-Union  Publications.     50  cents. 

III-IV.  White  Servitude  in  Maryland,  1634-1820.     By  E.  I.  McCormac.     50  cents. 

V.  Switzerland  at  the  Beginning  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.    By  J.  M.  Vincent.     30  cents. 

VI-VII-VIII.  The  History  of  Reconstruction  in  Virginia.     By  H.  J.  Eckenrodb.     50  cts. 

Lay  Sermons.     Bv  Amos  G.  Warner.     (Published  as  Notes  Supplementary  to  the  Studies.) 

IX-X.  The  Foreign  Commerce  of  Japan  since  the  Restoration.     By  Y.  Hattori.     50  cents. 

XI-XII.  Descriptions  of  Maryland.     By  B.  C.  Steiner.     50  cents. 

TWENTY-THIRD  SERIES.— Colonies,  Revolution,  Reconstruction.— $3.50. 

I-II.  Reconstruction  in  South  Carolina.     Bv  J.  P.  Holi.is.     50  cents. 

III-IV.  Political  Conditions  in  Maryland,  1777-1781.     By  B.  W.  Bond,  Jr.     50  cents. 

V-VI.  Colonial  Administration  under  Lord  Clarendon,  1660-1667.     By  P.  L.  Kaye.     50  cts. 

VII-VIII.  Justice  in  Colonial  Virginia.     Bv  O.  P.  Chitwood.     50  cents. 

IX-X.  The  Napoleonic  Exiles  in  America,  1815-1819.     By  J.  S.  Reeves.     50  cents. 

XI-XII.  Municipal  Problems  in  Mediaeval  Switzerland.    By  J.  M.  Vincent.  50  cents. 

TWENTY-FOURTH  SERIES.— Diplomatic  History:   Trade  Unions.— ^3.50. 

I-II.  Spanish-American  Diplomatic  Relations  before  1898.     By  H.  E.  Flack.     50  cents. 

III  IV.  The  Finances  of  American  Trade  Unions,     By  A.  M.  Sakoi.ski.     75  cents. 

V  VI.  Diplomatic  Negotiations  of  the  United  States  with  Russia.  By  J.  C.  IIildt.  50  cts. 
VII  VIII.  State  Rights  and  Parties  in  North  Carolina,  1776-1831.  By  II.  M.  Wagstaff.  50c. 
IX-X.  National  Labor  Federations  in  the  United  States.  By  William  Kirk.  75  cents. 
XI-XII.  Maryland  During  the  English  Civil  Wars.     Part  I.     By  B.  C.  Steiner.     50  cents. 

TWENTY-FIFTH    SERIES.— International   and   Colonial   History.— ^3.50. 

I.  Internal  Taxation  In  the  Philippines.     Bv  John  S.  Hord.     30  cents. 

II-III.  The  Monroe  Mission  to  France,  1794  1796,     By  B.  W.  Bond,  Jr.     50  cents. 

IV  V,  Maryland  During  the  English  Civil  Wars,  Part  II.     By  Bernard  C.  Steiner.     50c. 

VI  VII.  The  State  in  Constitutional  and  International  Law,  Bv  R.  T.  Crane.  50  cents. 
VIII-IX-X.  Financial  History  of  Maryland,  1789-1848.  By  IH  oh  S.  ITaxna.  75  cents. 
XI-XII.  Apprenticeship  in  American  Trade  Unions.     By  J.  M.  Motley.     50  cents. 

The  sft  of  twenty-five    (regular)    series   of   Studies   Is  offered,   uniformly  bound   In 
cloth,  for  library  u.se,  $82.00  net. 

Tub  Johns  Hopkins  Press,  Baltimore.  Md. 


THE  LIBRARY 

;T>TTyFR>nY  OF  CALIFORNU 
\/)B  ANGELES 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


AA    000  897  272    i 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

Los  Angeles 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


/,     PirAm.   00   MOT    RSr^OVS 
THIS    BOOK  CARD    ] 


Form  LJ 


i^j 


<oA^.-LIBRARY6^r 


i.^  '± 


University  Reseorch  Library 


CO 


•Jj 


•Lfi 
•X- 


^■^^-^Mi 


